American Government PSC101 1007 Chapter 15

The development and evolution of public administration and bureaucracy in the United States have been shaped by historical, political, and societal factors. Over time, the role and functions of the federal government, as well as state and local governments, have expanded, resulting in the growth and transformation of public administration.

Here is an overview of the evolution of public administration and bureaucracy in the United States:

1. Early American Government: In the early years of the United States, government institutions were relatively small and decentralized. Public administration was minimal, with limited government services and bureaucracies. Government responsibilities primarily focused on maintaining law and order.

2. Jacksonian Era: The presidency of Andrew Jackson in the 1830s marked a period of increased emphasis on patronage and the spoils system. Bureaucratic positions were often awarded based on political loyalty, leading to inefficiencies and corruption in government.

3. Civil War and Post-Civil War Period: The Civil War and the Reconstruction era prompted the federal government to expand its responsibilities. The creation of government agencies, such as the Bureau of Internal Revenue (precursor to the Internal Revenue Service) and the Department of Agriculture, marked the beginning of a more professionalized civil service.

4. Pendleton Act: In 1883, the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act established the merit system for federal civil service appointments. This landmark legislation aimed to reduce political patronage and improve the professionalism of the federal workforce.

5. Progressive Era: The Progressive Era (late 19th to early 20th century) witnessed significant reforms in public administration. Progressive leaders pushed for efficiency, accountability, and expertise in government. This era saw the establishment of regulatory agencies, such as the Interstate Commerce Commission and the Food and Drug Administration.

6. New Deal and Expansion of Government: The Great Depression and President Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal led to a significant expansion of the federal government. New agencies were created to address economic and social challenges, resulting in the emergence of large bureaucracies.

7. World War II and Postwar Period: The federal government played a central role in managing the homefront during World War II. After the war, government agencies continued to grow and adapt to address postwar challenges, such as the reconstruction of Europe.

8. Civil Rights Movement and the Great Society: The 1960s brought about the civil rights movement and President Lyndon B. Johnson's Great Society programs, which aimed to address poverty and racial inequality. New federal agencies and programs were established to support these initiatives.

9. Reform and Deregulation: The 1970s and 1980s saw efforts to reform and streamline government. The Civil Service Reform Act of 1978 modernized the federal civil service, while deregulation became a prominent theme in areas such as transportation and finance.

10. Modern Challenges: Public administration and bureaucracy continue to evolve to address contemporary challenges, including issues related to homeland security, healthcare, technology, and environmental regulation.

11. State and Local Government Bureaucracies: State and local governments have their own bureaucracies, which vary in size and structure. They manage a range of services, including education, transportation, public safety, and social services.

The evolution of public administration and bureaucracy in the United States reflects changing societal needs, political priorities, and advances in management and technology. While there have been ongoing efforts to enhance efficiency, accountability, and transparency in government, the role of public administration remains central to the functioning of government at all levels.

The move toward a merit-based civil service, characterized by hiring, promotion, and employment decisions based on qualifications, skills, and performance rather than political patronage or other non-merit factors, has been a significant development in the history of public administration in the United States. Here are key milestones and concepts in the evolution toward a merit-based civil service:

1. Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act (1883): The Pendleton Act is a landmark piece of legislation that established the merit system for federal civil service appointments. It aimed to reduce political patronage (the spoils system) and established the Civil Service Commission (now the Office of Personnel Management) to oversee the new system. The act required that appointments to federal positions be made based on competitive exams and merit.

2. The Merit System Principles: The merit system principles, which are outlined in federal law, guide the federal civil service in the United States. These principles emphasize equal opportunity, fair treatment, and recruitment, selection, and advancement based on qualifications.

3. The Hatch Act (1939): The Hatch Act restricts federal employees' involvement in partisan political activities. It was enacted to prevent political coercion, pressure, or interference with the merit-based principles of the civil service.

4. Office of Personnel Management (OPM): The OPM is a federal agency responsible for managing the federal civil service. It oversees hiring, classification, compensation, and performance management. OPM plays a central role in maintaining and promoting the merit-based civil service.

5. Civil Service Reform Act of 1978: This act modernized and improved the federal civil service by addressing issues such as labor-management relations, appeals processes, and employee performance evaluations. It reinforced the merit system principles.

6. Merit Systems Protection Board (MSPB): The MSPB is an independent agency that enforces the merit system principles and safeguards the rights of federal employees. It hears appeals related to personnel actions and promotes a merit-based workforce.

7. State and Local Government Reforms: Many state and local governments have also adopted merit-based systems for their civil services, following the federal government's lead. These systems are designed to ensure that hiring, promotions, and dismissals are based on qualifications and performance.

8. Merit-Based Promotion and Training: Merit-based systems often include training and career development opportunities for employees. Promotions are typically based on a combination of qualifications, performance evaluations, and experience.

9. Equal Employment Opportunity (EEO): The merit-based civil service also emphasizes EEO principles to ensure that all individuals have equal access to government employment and advancement opportunities.

10. Challenges and Ongoing Efforts: Challenges to a fully merit-based civil service include issues related to diversity, equity, and inclusion. There are ongoing efforts to promote diversity and prevent discrimination in hiring and promotions.

The move toward a merit-based civil service has contributed to the professionalization of the public sector, improved government effectiveness, and reduced corruption and political favoritism in public employment. It has also provided opportunities for individuals to pursue careers in public service based on their qualifications and commitment to public values. However, ongoing efforts are needed to address the changing needs and demands of the public sector workforce and ensure that the civil service remains responsive to the public interest.

Bureaucracies are complex administrative structures within government organizations, private businesses, and other institutions that are responsible for implementing policies, providing services, and managing resources. They play a crucial role in society by carrying out essential functions, ensuring the rule of law, and maintaining the day-to-day operations of institutions. Bureaucracies can vary in size, scope, and function, and they are categorized into different types based on their characteristics and roles. Here's an overview of bureaucracies and their types:

Characteristics of Bureaucracies:

1. Hierarchical Structure: Bureaucracies are organized in a hierarchical manner, with a clear chain of command. Decision-making authority typically flows from top management down to lower-level employees.

2. Division of Labor: Bureaucracies assign specific tasks and responsibilities to individuals or units, ensuring specialization and efficiency.

3. Rules and Procedures: Bureaucracies operate based on established rules, procedures, and standard operating protocols to maintain consistency and fairness.

4. Impersonal Relationships: Bureaucracies aim to treat all individuals impartially, focusing on the role rather than the personal characteristics of employees and clients.

5. Formal Record Keeping: Bureaucracies maintain detailed records of activities, transactions, and decisions, ensuring transparency and accountability.

Types of Bureaucracies:

1. Government Bureaucracies: These are bureaucracies within government agencies and departments responsible for implementing public policies, delivering government services, and enforcing laws. Examples include the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services or the Internal Revenue Service (IRS).

2. Private Bureaucracies: Private sector organizations, including corporations, businesses, and nonprofit entities, have their own bureaucratic structures. These structures ensure efficient operation, resource management, and decision-making processes.

3. International Bureaucracies: Organizations like the United Nations (UN), World Health Organization (WHO), and World Bank are international bureaucracies. They work across borders to address global issues, promote cooperation, and provide assistance.

4. Political Bureaucracies: These are often found within political parties, campaigns, and advocacy organizations. They manage the day-to-day activities of political entities, including organizing elections, fundraising, and communication.

5. Military Bureaucracies: Military organizations, such as the U.S. Department of Defense or the Ministry of Defence in the United Kingdom, have extensive bureaucratic structures to manage defense and security operations.

6. Educational Bureaucracies: Schools, colleges, and universities have their own administrative structures to oversee academic programs, faculty, staff, and student affairs. These structures ensure the efficient operation of educational institutions.

7. Healthcare Bureaucracies: Hospitals, clinics, and healthcare organizations have bureaucratic structures responsible for patient care, compliance with regulations, and resource allocation.

8. Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs): NGOs, such as the Red Cross or Amnesty International, have bureaucratic structures to manage humanitarian and advocacy efforts.

9. International Non-Governmental Organizations (INGOs): These organizations, like Médecins Sans Frontières (Doctors Without Borders) or Greenpeace, operate globally with bureaucratic structures focused on specific issues or causes.

10. Law Enforcement Bureaucracies: Police departments and law enforcement agencies have their own bureaucratic systems to ensure public safety, enforce laws, and maintain order.

11. Regulatory Bureaucracies: Independent regulatory agencies, like the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) or the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), are tasked with overseeing specific industries and enforcing regulations.

It's important to note that the effectiveness and efficiency of bureaucracies can vary widely, and they often face challenges related to accountability, responsiveness, and adapting to changing circumstances. Public policy, organizational culture, and leadership all play significant roles in shaping the performance and impact of bureaucracies.

Controlling the bureaucracy is an important aspect of governance in democratic systems to ensure accountability, transparency, and the effective implementation of policies and programs. The executive, legislative, and judicial branches of government, as well as the public, play critical roles in controlling and overseeing the bureaucracy. Here are some key mechanisms and strategies for controlling the bureaucracy:

1. Executive Control:

   • Appointment Authority: The executive branch, typically led by the president or governor, has the authority to appoint top officials within the bureaucracy, such as agency heads and department heads. These appointees set the tone and direction of the agency.
   • Administrative Oversight: The executive branch can establish internal mechanisms for monitoring and evaluating the performance of agencies. This may include performance metrics, audits, and regular reporting.

2. Legislative Control:

   • Authorization and Appropriation: The legislature, through the budgetary process, has the power to authorize and allocate funding to government agencies. This gives legislators leverage over agency operations and policy priorities.
   • Confirmation Hearings: In some cases, the legislature may have the authority to confirm or reject certain executive branch appointments, such as agency heads or cabinet members.
   • Oversight Committees: Legislative committees, often known as oversight or investigative committees, play a critical role in scrutinizing agency actions, conducting hearings, and holding agencies accountable for their performance.
   • Legislative Review: The legislature can pass laws that mandate regular reviews of agency programs, policies, and regulations to ensure they align with legislative intent.

3. Judicial Control:

   • Judicial Review: Courts, including the judiciary branch of government, have the authority to review agency actions and decisions to determine their legality and constitutionality. This serves as a check on bureaucratic overreach or violations of the law.

4. Public Control:

   • Transparency: Openness and transparency in government operations, decision-making, and spending enable the public to monitor agency activities and make informed judgments.
   • Freedom of Information Acts: Many countries have laws that provide citizens with the right to request government documents and information, ensuring transparency.
   • Whistleblower Protections: Legal protections for whistleblowers who expose misconduct within government agencies encourage individuals to report wrongdoing.
   • Public Participation: Public hearings, comment periods, and consultations with stakeholders allow citizens to have a voice in the policymaking process.

5. Bureaucratic Accountability:

   • Performance Metrics: Agencies may establish performance metrics and key performance indicators (KPIs) to measure their effectiveness and efficiency. These metrics can help identify areas for improvement.
   • Audits: Internal and external audits can assess agency operations, financial management, and compliance with laws and regulations.
   • Inspector General Offices: Many agencies have inspector general (IG) offices, which serve as independent, internal watchdogs tasked with investigating and preventing waste, fraud, and abuse within the agency.

6. Sunset Provisions: Some legislatures include sunset provisions in statutes, which require agencies to undergo periodic reviews and reauthorization. Agencies that do not meet their objectives may be disbanded or restructured.

7. Reform and Modernization: Governments may undertake periodic reform efforts to streamline bureaucracy, enhance efficiency, and eliminate redundancy. This may involve reorganization or consolidation of agencies.

Controlling the bureaucracy is a dynamic and ongoing process, and the specific mechanisms for control can vary by country and jurisdiction. Effective control mechanisms balance the need for agency autonomy and expertise with the imperative of maintaining public trust and ensuring accountability.

The operation of government bureaucracies can be influenced by various models and approaches, each of which has its strengths and weaknesses. The specific model that best explains how government operates can vary depending on the context, the level of government (federal, state, local), and the particular agency or department. Some of the models commonly used to describe bureaucracy include:

1. Weberian Model: This model, associated with Max Weber, emphasizes a hierarchical structure with clear lines of authority and specialization of tasks. It places importance on rationality, formal rules and procedures, and merit-based hiring and promotion. The Weberian model is often seen as an ideal form of bureaucracy, but it may not fully capture the complexities and realities of government operations.

2. Public Choice Model: This model views government bureaucrats as self-interested individuals who make decisions to maximize their own utility, much like rational actors in economic markets. It assumes that bureaucrats may prioritize their own interests over the public good, leading to inefficiencies and suboptimal outcomes.

3. New Public Management (NPM): The NPM model emphasizes results-oriented management, performance-based incentives, and a focus on customer service. It promotes market-like competition and the use of private sector practices in government to improve efficiency and effectiveness.

4. Street-Level Bureaucracy: This model, as described by Michael Lipsky, focuses on the front-line public service workers who interact directly with citizens. These workers often have substantial discretion and must make decisions in real-time, sometimes adapting to unique and unanticipated situations.

5. Iron Triangle and Issue Networks: These models describe the relationships and interactions between government agencies, interest groups, and congressional committees or subcommittees. They highlight the role of informal networks and lobbying in shaping government decisions and policies.

6. Patronage System: The patronage system is based on political appointments, where individuals are appointed to government positions based on their political loyalty and support for elected officials. This system can lead to political favoritism and may not prioritize merit-based hiring.

The patronage system, while not the dominant model in modern government, still plays a role in some government agencies and at certain levels of government. To make the patronage system more efficient or to transition toward a merit-based system, several steps can be taken:

1. Civil Service Reform: Strengthen and expand the civil service system to emphasize merit-based hiring, promotions, and retention. This includes competitive examinations, performance evaluations, and career development opportunities.

2. Merit-Based Hiring: Ensure that job openings are widely advertised, that applicants are evaluated based on qualifications, and that political considerations are minimized in the hiring process.

3. Whistleblower Protections: Implement strong protections for employees who report wrongdoing within government agencies to prevent political retaliation and encourage accountability.

4. Transparency and Accountability: Establish mechanisms for transparency, public access to information, and oversight to hold agencies and their officials accountable for their actions.

5. Ethics and Codes of Conduct: Develop and enforce ethical standards and codes of conduct for government employees to maintain integrity and professionalism in their work.

6. Strong Oversight: Strengthen the role of legislative oversight committees and inspector general offices to monitor agency operations and prevent abuse.

7. Civil Service Training: Provide training and professional development opportunities to build a skilled and knowledgeable civil service workforce.

Efforts to modernize and professionalize government operations, while minimizing patronage, can contribute to a more efficient and accountable public administration. However, each government agency and level of government may have unique challenges and requirements, making reform efforts complex and context-specific.

Which model of bureaucracy best explains the way the government currently operates? Why? In what ways might the patronage system be made more efficient?

To me it seems like the government is using a monopolistic bureaucratic model because the government lacks competition and works under its own set of rules with no accountability or obligations to its people. The patronage system was created to reward people that helped politicians win elections but most of the people that got granted patronage didn't have the right qualifications in politics. So instead it lead to people abusing positions for personal gains. The way to help resolve issues with the patronage system would be using the government accountability office to help control and also setting standards of appointment that will make sure that only patronage appointee's which have passed the standard qualification should be considered which would prevent individuals who are not qualified from taking those positions.  I think that also trickles down into other areas of the government like having so much waste because they can spend a lot on things and waste things but there's never that fear that the government model will change because its how its been setup and will continue to work. So there will always be a set standard efficiency level for everything that will never change it won't improve. We see price commodities still working in a similar way today where we make oil here but those products are sold to other countries and never make any effect on markets here. But it's because they can make more money. Overseas in the UK gas is 5.79 a liter and here at least in North Carolina its 2.99 a gallon so it's easy to see why they would want to sell gas from here over there instead. 

The growth of bureaucracy in the early 1800s in the United States was influenced by several developments and historical events. Some of the key factors contributing to this growth during that period include:

1. Westward Expansion: The westward expansion of the United States in the early 19th century led to the creation of new territories and states. The federal government had to establish administrative structures and agencies to manage and govern these expanding regions, which required an expansion of the bureaucracy.

2. Industrialization: The growth of industry and commerce in the 19th century increased the need for regulatory and administrative bodies to oversee economic activities, enforce contracts, and ensure the smooth functioning of markets. Agencies like the Patent Office and the Department of Commerce and Labor were created to address these needs.

3. Infrastructure Development: The construction of infrastructure, including roads, canals, and later, railroads, required government oversight and coordination. Bureaucracies such as the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers played a crucial role in these endeavors.

4. Post Office Expansion: The U.S. Postal Service, one of the earliest federal bureaucracies, expanded significantly during this period to facilitate communication and commerce. The post office's role in connecting the growing nation contributed to the need for an expanding bureaucracy.

5. Civil Service Reform: The early 19th century witnessed discussions and reforms regarding the merit-based civil service system. The concept of hiring government employees based on merit rather than political patronage gained traction during this period, laying the groundwork for a professionalized bureaucracy.

6. War of 1812 and Military Growth: The War of 1812 led to an expansion of the military and the establishment of a more robust War Department bureaucracy to manage the armed forces.

7. Regulatory Agencies: The 19th century saw the creation of regulatory agencies to oversee various aspects of the economy. For example, the establishment of the Office of the Comptroller of the Currency in 1863 marked a step toward federal oversight of national banks.

8. Judicial System: The growth of the federal judiciary, including the establishment of new federal courts, required administrative support and a larger staff to manage the judicial system effectively.

9. Land and Natural Resource Management: The federal government played a significant role in land management and natural resource conservation, particularly in the acquisition of new territories, which required the establishment of land offices and regulatory agencies.

10. Customs and Trade: The growth of international trade and the need for revenue collection led to the expansion of the U.S. Customs Service and related agencies.

These developments, driven by territorial expansion, economic growth, and the need for government services, contributed to the growth of bureaucracy in the early 1800s. The expansion of government bureaucracies during this period laid the groundwork for the development of modern administrative structures and the professionalization of the civil service in the United States.

1. Under the spoils system, individuals are appointed to government positions, including civil service jobs, based on their loyalty to the party or politician in power. Party loyalty and political contributions often play a significant role in these appointments.

2. Rotation of Officeholders: When a new political party or leader comes into power, they often replace existing government employees with individuals from their own party or political allies. This practice can result in frequent turnover of government personnel.

3. Limited Merit-Based Hiring: The spoils system deemphasizes qualifications, experience, and merit as criteria for government employment. Instead, loyalty to the ruling political party is prioritized.

4. Corruption and Inefficiency: The spoils system can lead to inefficiency and corruption, as individuals in government positions may lack the expertise and experience necessary to perform their duties effectively. This can result in mismanagement, waste, and nepotism.

The spoils system was particularly prevalent in the United States during the 19th century, and it was closely associated with the practice of "patronage politics." Notable political figures like President Andrew Jackson and the Democratic Party supported the system. However, it faced significant criticism for its negative consequences, including a lack of professionalism in government, corruption, and the promotion of individuals with little or no relevant qualifications.

Efforts to reform and replace the spoils system led to the emergence of the merit-based civil service system in the United States. The Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act of 1883 marked a significant turning point in replacing the spoils system with a system based on competitive examinations, merit-based hiring, and professionalization of the federal workforce. This legislation aimed to reduce political patronage and improve the quality and efficiency of the civil service.

Today, the United States relies on a merit-based civil service system in which government employees are hired, promoted, and retained based on their qualifications, experience, and performance, rather than political considerations. This system was developed in response to the perceived problems associated with the spoils system and remains a cornerstone of modern public administration.

The Sunshine Act, formally known as the Government in the Sunshine Act, is a U.S. federal law designed to increase the transparency of government agencies and their decision-making processes. Enacted in 1976, the act requires certain federal agencies to conduct their meetings and deliberations in an open and accessible manner. Here are key features and purposes of the Sunshine Act:

1. Open Meetings Requirement: The Sunshine Act mandates that certain federal agencies hold their meetings in open and publicly accessible forums. This means that meetings where official business or policy discussions are conducted must be held in a manner that allows public observation.

2. Applicability: The Sunshine Act applies to agencies defined in the law, including federal agencies headed by collegial bodies (e.g., the Federal Reserve Board) and those that have advisory committees with significant public functions.

3. Notice Requirements: Agencies subject to the act must provide advance public notice of their meetings, including the date, time, and place of the meeting, and the topics to be discussed. This notice is typically published in the Federal Register.

4. Limited Closed Sessions: While the Sunshine Act emphasizes openness, it does allow for closed sessions under specific circumstances. Agencies can close a meeting when discussing matters such as national security, privacy issues, or certain personnel matters.

5. Meeting Records: Agencies subject to the act are required to maintain records of their meetings, including transcripts or recordings of closed sessions and copies of documents used or discussed during meetings.

6. Public Access: The act ensures that meetings are physically accessible to the public and allows for reasonable accommodations for people with disabilities. It may also provide for remote access through teleconferencing or online streaming.

7. Enforcement and Penalties: Violations of the Sunshine Act can result in legal actions against the agency, as well as individual members of the agency. Courts can void actions taken in violation of the act.

The primary purpose of the Sunshine Act is to promote transparency in government decision-making and to provide the public with insight into the workings of federal agencies. By requiring agencies to hold meetings in public view, it helps to prevent backroom deals and ensures that decisions are made with the public interest in mind.

The Sunshine Act is part of a broader effort to maintain open and accountable government. It complements other laws, such as the Freedom of Information Act (FOIA), which grants the public access to government records, and serves as an important tool for citizens, journalists, and advocacy groups to monitor and participate in government activities.

A merit system for government employment, often referred to as a merit-based civil service system, requires several key components and principles to ensure that hiring, promotion, and retention decisions are based on qualifications, competence, and merit rather than political considerations. Here are the essential requirements and features of a merit-based civil service system:

1. Objective Hiring and Promotion Standards: The merit system requires the establishment of clear and objective standards for hiring and promoting employees. These standards should be based on job-related criteria, such as education, experience, skills, and performance.

2. Competitive Examinations: To assess the qualifications of job applicants, competitive examinations are often conducted. These exams evaluate candidates' knowledge, skills, and abilities relevant to the position. Examinations can take various forms, including written tests, oral interviews, and performance assessments.

3. Merit Registers and Eligibility Lists: Successful candidates in competitive examinations are typically placed on merit registers or eligibility lists, which serve as pools of qualified candidates for specific job categories. Agencies select employees from these lists when positions become available.

4. Equal Opportunity and Non-Discrimination: The merit system emphasizes equal employment opportunity and prohibits discrimination based on factors such as race, gender, religion, and political affiliation. Employment decisions must be made without regard to these characteristics.

5. Independent Civil Service Commissions: Many merit-based systems include independent civil service commissions or boards responsible for overseeing the hiring and promotion process, conducting examinations, and ensuring compliance with merit principles.

6. Protection of Whistleblowers: To promote accountability and transparency, the merit system often includes protections for whistleblowers who report misconduct or violations of law within government agencies. These protections encourage employees to come forward with concerns.

7. Performance-Based Evaluations: Performance evaluations should be conducted regularly to assess employee performance and determine opportunities for promotion and professional development. Merit-based promotions are often contingent on favorable performance evaluations.

8. Training and Professional Development: Government agencies typically invest in training and professional development programs to enhance the skills and knowledge of their employees. These programs help employees stay current and improve their performance.

9. Civil Service Rules and Regulations: Well-defined civil service rules and regulations are established to govern the conduct and responsibilities of government employees, as well as the procedures for hiring, promotions, and appeals.

10. Appeals Process: A fair and transparent appeals process allows employees to challenge adverse employment decisions, such as disciplinary actions or non-selection for promotions. Appeals boards or commissions review such cases to ensure that decisions were made in accordance with the merit system.

11. Transparency and Accountability: Merit-based systems require agencies to maintain records of their employment decisions, making them available for review to ensure accountability and transparency.

12. Prohibition of Political Patronage: The merit system is intended to reduce or eliminate political patronage by basing hiring and promotions on qualifications rather than political connections or affiliations.

13. Public Confidence and Trust: An effective merit system fosters public confidence and trust in government institutions by assuring the public that employment decisions are made fairly and in the best interest of the public.

The development and maintenance of a merit-based civil service system are essential for ensuring the professionalism, efficiency, and integrity of government operations. Such systems help mitigate the negative consequences associated with political patronage and contribute to the effective functioning of public administration.

As of my last knowledge update in September 2021, there are 15 Cabinet departments in the United States federal government. These Cabinet departments are the principal executive agencies responsible for various aspects of governance and the implementation of federal policies. Here is the list of the 15 Cabinet departments:

1. Department of Agriculture (USDA)
2. Department of Commerce (DOC)
3. Department of Defense (DOD)
4. Department of Education (ED)
5. Department of Energy (DOE)
6. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS)
7. Department of Homeland Security (DHS)
8. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD)
9. Department of the Interior (DOI)
10. Department of Justice (DOJ)
11. Department of Labor (DOL)
12. Department of State (DOS)
13. Department of Transportation (DOT)
14. Department of the Treasury (USDT)
15. Department of Veterans Affairs (VA)

Please note that the number and structure of federal departments can change over time due to legislation, reorganization, or changes in government priorities. It's a good practice to verify the current status of federal departments if you need up-to-date information.

The size and scope of a bureaucracy can expand for various reasons, and this growth is influenced by a combination of factors. While it's important for government bureaucracies to evolve and adapt to changing circumstances and societal needs, unchecked or exponential growth can lead to challenges. Here are some factors that can contribute to the expansion of a bureaucracy:

1. Government Functions and Services: As societies evolve and grow, the demand for government services often increases. Bureaucracies expand to meet these demands in areas such as healthcare, education, transportation, and social services.

2. Legislative Mandates: When new laws and regulations are passed, government agencies are often created or tasked with implementing and enforcing them. This can lead to the expansion of existing agencies or the establishment of new ones.

3. Crisis and Emergency Response: In response to crises, emergencies, or national security concerns, government agencies may need to expand rapidly to address the situation. This is often seen in agencies responsible for disaster management, public health, and national defense.

4. Technological Advancements: Technological advancements may necessitate the creation of new agencies or the expansion of existing ones. Agencies responsible for information technology, cybersecurity, and data protection have become increasingly important.

5. Globalization: The interconnectedness of the global economy and international relations can lead to the expansion of agencies responsible for trade, diplomacy, and international cooperation.

6. Economic and Social Programs: Governments often implement economic and social programs, such as welfare, unemployment benefits, and public health initiatives. These programs can lead to the growth of agencies overseeing them.

7. Public Expectations: Citizens and stakeholders often have expectations for government action in areas like environmental protection, consumer safety, and civil rights. To meet these expectations, agencies may expand their activities.

8. Demographic Changes: Changes in population size and demographics can influence the need for government services, including those related to healthcare, education, and social welfare.

9. Regulatory Compliance: Increased regulation of industries, financial markets, and other sectors can lead to the growth of regulatory agencies responsible for enforcement and oversight.

10. Technological and Scientific Advancements: Scientific and technological advances may require government agencies to expand their capacity to conduct research, regulate emerging technologies, and respond to new challenges.

11. Funding and Budgets: The availability of funding and budgets for government agencies can also impact their size and scope. An increase in funding may lead to expansion, while budget constraints may necessitate cutbacks.

It's important to strike a balance between the expansion of government bureaucracies and their efficiency and accountability. Bureaucratic growth should be guided by clear objectives, effectiveness, transparency, and accountability. Periodic evaluation and streamlining of government agencies are often necessary to ensure that they continue to serve the public interest effectively.

Prior to the implementation of merit-based civil service systems, civil service positions in the United States were typically filled through a system known as the "spoils system" or "patronage system." Under this system, government jobs were distributed as political rewards, and appointments were made based on political loyalty rather than qualifications or merit. Here's how civil service positions were filled before the introduction of merit-based systems:

1. Political Appointments: Elected officials, particularly at the federal level, had the authority to appoint individuals to government positions. These appointments were often based on an individual's political affiliation, support for a particular party or candidate, or personal connections to those in power.

2. Rotation of Officeholders: When a new political party or administration came into power, it was common for the incoming leaders to replace existing government employees with individuals who supported their party or candidacy. This practice led to frequent turnover in government positions.

3. Lack of Qualifications-Based Hiring: Under the spoils system, qualifications, experience, and expertise were not the primary criteria for employment. Political loyalty was often prioritized over an individual's ability to perform the duties of the job.

4. Corruption and Inefficiency: The spoils system could lead to inefficiency, corruption, and nepotism within government agencies. Positions were sometimes used as rewards for campaign volunteers or donors, rather than for individuals with the necessary skills.

5. Frequent Turnover: Frequent changes in government personnel, especially with changes in political leadership, could disrupt the continuity and professionalism of government operations. Government employees were often vulnerable to losing their jobs when political tides shifted.

6. Abuse of Power: Elected officials had significant influence over hiring and firing decisions, which could lead to the abuse of power and political favoritism.

The spoils system faced criticism and opposition for its negative consequences, which included a lack of professionalism in government, corruption, and the promotion of individuals with little or no relevant qualifications. The system was seen as undermining the efficiency and effectiveness of government operations.

In response to these concerns, civil service reforms were implemented in the United States. The Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act of 1883 marked a significant shift toward the establishment of a merit-based civil service system. This reform aimed to reduce political patronage, enhance professionalism in government, and ensure that government employees were selected based on merit, qualifications, and performance. The establishment of competitive examinations, merit registers, and an impartial civil service commission were key components of this reform.

Today, merit-based civil service systems are the standard in the United States, ensuring that government positions are filled based on qualifications, competitive examinations, and professionalism rather than political considerations.

The Weberian model, also known as the "Weberian bureaucracy" or "Weberian ideal type," is a conceptual framework developed by the German sociologist and economist Max Weber. It describes an idealized form of bureaucracy that is characterized by specific features and principles. The Weberian model has been influential in the study of organizational and administrative theory and provides a framework for understanding the characteristics of modern bureaucracies. Here are some key aspects of the Weberian model:

1. Hierarchy: In the Weberian model, organizations, including government bureaucracies, are structured as hierarchies with clear lines of authority and a well-defined chain of command. Each level of the hierarchy has specific responsibilities and authority.

2. Specialization: Bureaucracies are characterized by a high degree of specialization, meaning that tasks and responsibilities are clearly defined and assigned to individuals with the appropriate expertise. This specialization helps improve efficiency and effectiveness.

3. Impersonal Rules and Procedures: The Weberian model emphasizes the use of formal rules and procedures for decision-making and administrative processes. Decisions should be made based on established rules, regulations, and objective criteria, rather than personal preferences or favoritism.

4. Merit-Based Recruitment and Promotion: In this model, hiring and promotion of employees are based on merit, qualifications, and competence. Individuals are selected and advanced in their careers based on their skills and abilities, not on personal connections or political considerations.

5. Career Civil Service: The Weberian ideal envisions a career civil service in which individuals commit to long-term employment with the organization. This provides stability, continuity, and professionalism within the bureaucracy.

6. Division of Labor: The work within a bureaucracy is divided into specialized tasks, and employees are assigned specific roles and responsibilities. This division of labor contributes to efficiency and expertise in each area.

7. Written Communication and Record-Keeping: Bureaucracies in the Weberian model rely on written communication and meticulous record-keeping. This ensures transparency and accountability in decision-making and actions.

8. Rational-Legal Authority: The authority within the organization is based on rational-legal principles. This means that authority is derived from rules, laws, and legitimate procedures, rather than traditional or charismatic sources of authority.

9. Efficiency and Predictability: Bureaucracies following the Weberian model aim to achieve efficiency in their operations and provide predictability in how they function. This predictability is valuable for both employees and the public.

10. Separation of Personal and Official Life: Weberian bureaucracies encourage a separation between an employee's personal life and official duties to avoid conflicts of interest and ensure impartial decision-making.

The Weberian model serves as an ideal type against which real-world bureaucracies can be compared and assessed. While it may not perfectly describe every aspect of all bureaucracies, it provides a valuable framework for understanding the core principles and characteristics of modern administrative organizations. It has influenced the development and reform of government bureaucracies in many countries, including the United States.

The Civil Service Commission is an administrative agency or body responsible for overseeing and regulating the employment and personnel practices within the civil service or public sector of a government. Civil Service Commissions are typically established to ensure that government hiring, promotions, and other employment decisions are made based on merit, qualifications, and fairness rather than political considerations. They play a crucial role in maintaining the professionalism and efficiency of government operations.

The specific functions and responsibilities of a Civil Service Commission may vary from one jurisdiction to another, but they often include the following:

1. Merit-Based Hiring: Civil Service Commissions oversee and implement merit-based recruitment and selection processes for government job vacancies. They may develop and administer competitive examinations, assess qualifications, and create eligibility lists from which hiring agencies can select candidates.

2. Establishing Rules and Regulations: Commissions develop and enforce rules and regulations governing civil service employment. These rules ensure that hiring and employment practices are consistent, transparent, and in compliance with laws and regulations.

3. Appeals and Grievances: In many cases, Civil Service Commissions provide a mechanism for government employees to appeal disciplinary actions, terminations, or other adverse employment decisions. They review appeals and grievances to determine whether they were handled fairly and in accordance with established procedures.

4. Professional Development: Civil Service Commissions may develop and oversee programs for the professional development and training of government employees. These programs help enhance skills, knowledge, and performance in the civil service.

5. Oversight and Compliance: Commissions monitor government agencies to ensure that they adhere to civil service rules and regulations, including merit-based hiring and promotions. They investigate allegations of non-compliance and take corrective actions when necessary.

6. Enforcement of Civil Service Laws: Civil Service Commissions may have the authority to enforce civil service laws and regulations, ensuring that government agencies follow established personnel practices and that employees are treated fairly.

7. Examinations and Eligibility Lists: They design, administer, and score civil service examinations, creating eligibility lists from which agencies select candidates for employment or promotion. The commission ensures that examinations are valid, job-related, and free from bias.

8. Public Transparency and Accountability: Civil Service Commissions play a role in promoting transparency and accountability in government employment. They maintain records, publish reports, and make information available to the public regarding civil service practices.

9. Recommendations for Improvement: Based on their oversight and evaluation of civil service practices, commissions may make recommendations for improvements or changes to policies and procedures.

The specific name, structure, and authority of Civil Service Commissions may differ from one jurisdiction to another, depending on national or regional laws and regulations. In the United States, for example, the federal civil service is regulated by the U.S. Office of Personnel Management (OPM), while individual states and municipalities may have their own Civil Service Commissions or equivalent agencies.

The overarching goal of a Civil Service Commission is to ensure that government employment practices are fair, transparent, and based on merit, which contributes to the effectiveness and integrity of the public sector.

While the merit system for civil service employment has numerous advantages, it is not without its drawbacks and challenges. Some of the drawbacks of the merit system include:

1. Bureaucratic Rigidity: The emphasis on standardized procedures and merit-based hiring can sometimes lead to bureaucratic rigidity, making it difficult for agencies to adapt quickly to changing circumstances or to hire specialized talent.

2. Slow Hiring Process: The merit-based hiring process, which may include competitive exams and formal evaluations, can be time-consuming. This can delay the recruitment of urgently needed personnel, especially in times of crisis.

3. Limited Flexibility: Merit-based systems can limit an agency's ability to hire individuals with unique or specialized skills who may not fit neatly into standardized job classifications.

4. Administrative Burden: Developing, administering, and maintaining a merit-based system requires administrative resources and can be resource-intensive for government agencies.

5. Inflexibility in Personnel Decisions: Civil service protections can make it difficult for agencies to remove or discipline underperforming or problematic employees, leading to concerns about inefficiency or the protection of poor performers.

6. Resistance to Change: Long-serving civil service employees may resist changes or innovations within the bureaucracy, leading to resistance to new methods or technologies.

7. Lack of Accountability: In some cases, the strong job security provided by the merit system may lead to a lack of accountability among certain employees who feel they cannot be easily removed for poor performance.

8. Potential for Bureaucratic Red Tape: The emphasis on rules and regulations may lead to excessive red tape and overly complex administrative procedures, hindering efficiency.

9. Difficulty in Addressing Diversity and Inclusion: Merit-based systems may sometimes struggle to promote diversity and inclusion, as they may inadvertently perpetuate biases or lack flexibility in addressing demographic imbalances.

10. Subjectivity in Evaluations: While the merit system aims to be objective, there can still be subjectivity in the evaluation and scoring of candidates, potentially leading to disputes and challenges.

11. Cost of Maintaining the System: Developing, implementing, and maintaining a merit-based system can be costly, requiring resources for examinations, assessments, and personnel.

It's important to note that many of these drawbacks can be mitigated through careful system design, ongoing monitoring and evaluation, and appropriate policies. In practice, governments often seek to strike a balance between the benefits of merit-based hiring and the need for flexibility and adaptability in their workforce. Addressing these challenges may involve reforms, modernization efforts, or targeted policies to ensure that the merit system remains effective and responsive to the needs of government and society.

The monopolistic model, in the context of political science and public administration, is not a commonly recognized term. However, it's possible that you may be referring to the "monopolistic competition" model or a similar economic concept applied to political or administrative contexts. I'll provide an explanation for both possibilities:

1. Monopolistic Competition Model: Monopolistic competition is an economic model used to describe a market structure in which there are many sellers, each offering a slightly differentiated product or service. While there is competition in such a market, each firm has some degree of market power due to the differentiation of their products. In the context of politics or public administration, one could use this model to describe a situation where there are multiple political parties or entities, each offering slightly different policy proposals or approaches. These parties compete for voter support, but none has a monopoly on power, and each has a certain degree of influence.

2. Monopolistic Model in Political Science: The term "monopolistic model" is not standard in political science or public administration. However, it could be used in a theoretical context to describe a situation where a single entity or organization has a monopoly on power, decision-making, or influence within a political system. Such a model might imply a lack of competition and pluralism in governance, which could have implications for democracy and representation.

If you have a specific context or concept related to the "monopolistic model" that you'd like to explore further or if you are referring to a different model or concept, please provide additional details, and I'll be happy to provide more specific information or explanations.

The Office of Management and Budget (OMB) is an important agency within the Executive Office of the President of the United States. It plays a central role in the development and execution of the federal budget and the management of the executive branch of the U.S. government. The OMB's primary functions include:

1. Budget Development and Execution: The OMB is responsible for assisting the President in developing the federal budget. It works with federal agencies to prepare budget proposals, which are then presented to Congress. The OMB also monitors and oversees the execution of the budget to ensure that agencies adhere to the President's budget priorities.

2. Regulatory Review: The OMB's Office of Information and Regulatory Affairs (OIRA) reviews and assesses proposed regulations from federal agencies to ensure they align with the President's policies and priorities. This process helps streamline regulatory activities and reduce regulatory burdens.

3. Management and Performance: The OMB helps federal agencies improve their management and performance. It works to enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of government programs, encourages innovation, and monitors the progress of key initiatives.

4. Legislative Coordination: The OMB serves as a key liaison between the President and Congress regarding budget and fiscal matters. It assists in the negotiation and implementation of budget agreements and appropriations.

5. Data and Analysis: The agency collects, analyzes, and reports on a wide range of data related to the federal budget, government spending, and performance. It provides economic and budgetary analysis to support decision-making.

6. Capital Planning: The OMB assists federal agencies in managing their capital assets and planning for major acquisitions, such as information technology systems, real property, and other investments.

7. Preparation of the President's Budget: One of the most visible roles of the OMB is the preparation of the President's budget proposal, which is submitted to Congress each year. This comprehensive document outlines the administration's spending priorities, policy goals, and fiscal projections.

8. Review of Agency Requests: The OMB reviews funding requests and legislative proposals from federal agencies, assessing their alignment with the administration's priorities and recommending changes as needed.

9. Government Reorganization: The OMB may propose government reorganization initiatives and work with Congress to implement them. This can involve reshaping the structure of government agencies and departments.

The OMB plays a crucial role in ensuring that the executive branch of the U.S. government operates efficiently, that federal resources are allocated in line with the President's policy agenda, and that government programs and initiatives are well-managed. It serves as a key link between the President's policy goals and the practical execution of those goals by federal agencies.

Patronage is a practice in which individuals are appointed to government positions or receive government benefits based on political loyalty, personal connections, or other non-merit-based criteria. It is the opposite of a merit-based system where appointments and benefits are determined by qualifications, competence, and objective criteria. Patronage has been a common feature of political systems in various countries, and it has both positive and negative aspects:

Positive Aspects of Patronage:

1. Loyalty and Trust: It can help leaders surround themselves with individuals they trust and who share their political vision and goals. This can be especially important in positions where personal loyalty is valued.

2. Rapid Appointments: Patronage allows for quick appointments, which can be important in times of crisis or when swift action is needed.

3. Flexibility: It provides flexibility in making appointments based on various factors, including political considerations, personal relationships, and favors.

Negative Aspects of Patronage:

1. Nepotism: It can lead to nepotism, where political leaders appoint family members or close friends to government positions, regardless of their qualifications.

2. Inefficiency: Appointing individuals based on loyalty rather than merit can lead to ineffective or inefficient government operations. Incompetent individuals may hold important positions.

3. Corruption: Patronage systems are susceptible to corruption, as individuals may engage in corrupt practices to gain or maintain government positions.

4. Lack of Accountability: Patronage can make it difficult to hold government officials accountable for their actions, as they may be protected by their political connections.

5. Discouragement of Competent Candidates: Meritorious candidates may be discouraged from pursuing government careers if they believe that appointments are based on political connections rather than qualifications.

In many democratic countries, there has been a shift away from patronage systems toward merit-based civil service systems. Merit-based systems aim to ensure that government appointments are made based on qualifications, competence, and objective criteria, rather than political considerations. These systems promote professionalism, transparency, and accountability in government.

However, it's important to note that some forms of political appointments, such as the appointment of cabinet members or ambassadors, are still made based on political considerations in many countries. The extent of patronage in government varies by country and political system.

The Government Accountability Office (GAO) is an independent agency of the United States federal government that operates as a legislative branch agency. Its primary mission is to provide Congress with objective, fact-based information, analysis, and recommendations to help it oversee and ensure the effective and efficient operation of the federal government.

Key functions and responsibilities of the Government Accountability Office include:

1. Financial Audits: GAO conducts financial audits of the U.S. government's consolidated financial statements to assess the government's fiscal health and the reliability of its financial reporting.

2. Performance Audits: GAO conducts performance audits to assess the efficiency, effectiveness, and program results of federal agencies and programs. These audits help identify areas where improvements can be made.

3. Legal Opinions: GAO provides legal opinions and decisions on issues related to federal spending and the interpretation of federal laws, contracts, and regulations.

4. Evaluations: GAO evaluates federal programs and activities, including those related to healthcare, defense, education, and more, to provide recommendations for improvements and cost savings.

5. Investigations: GAO conducts investigations into alleged misconduct, fraud, and mismanagement within the federal government. It has the authority to issue subpoenas and gather evidence for its investigations.

6. Bid Protests: GAO adjudicates bid protests related to federal procurement contracts. Companies or individuals who believe that the federal government's procurement decisions were unfair or improperly handled can file bid protests with GAO for review.

7. Testimony: GAO officials frequently testify before congressional committees to provide expert analysis and recommendations on various issues, including budget matters, government operations, and program effectiveness.

8. Reports to Congress: GAO produces numerous reports and studies each year on a wide range of topics, including financial management, national security, healthcare, and environmental issues. These reports are submitted to Congress for consideration and action.

9. Fiscal Responsibility: GAO assesses the federal government's long-term fiscal outlook, including the sustainability of federal programs and the implications of demographic changes and fiscal policies.

GAO's work is considered non-partisan and is aimed at promoting government transparency, accountability, and efficiency. It plays a crucial role in helping Congress exercise its oversight function and make informed decisions about federal programs, policies, and spending. GAO's reports and recommendations can influence policy changes and the allocation of federal resources.

The Comptroller General of the United States, who heads the GAO, serves a 15-year term and is appointed by the President with the consent of the Senate. The GAO operates independently of the executive and legislative branches, allowing it to provide objective analysis and assessments.

A civil service exam is an examination that individuals must take to qualify for government positions in the civil service or public sector. The purpose of these exams is to assess the knowledge, skills, and abilities of candidates and to ensure that government jobs are filled based on merit and qualifications rather than political considerations or personal connections. Civil service exams are typically used to hire or promote individuals in various government agencies and departments.

Key features of civil service exams include:

1. Merit-Based Selection: Civil service exams are designed to select candidates based on their qualifications and competencies. The goal is to ensure that government positions are filled by the most qualified individuals.

2. Standardized Testing: Examinations are typically standardized, meaning that all candidates are given the same test or assessment, and their performance is evaluated based on objective criteria.

3. Different Types of Exams: Civil service exams come in various forms, including written tests, oral interviews, performance assessments, and assessments of specialized skills or knowledge.

4. Job Relevance: The content of the exams is directly related to the requirements of the specific job or position being applied for. For example, an exam for a law enforcement position would focus on law enforcement knowledge and skills.

5. Fairness and Impartiality: Civil service exams are intended to be fair and impartial. They should not discriminate on the basis of factors such as race, gender, or ethnicity.

6. Transparency: The administration and scoring of civil service exams are typically transparent, with clear criteria and processes.

Civil service exams can vary significantly based on the type of job, agency, and government level (federal, state, local). Some exams may require extensive preparation, including studying subject matter, practicing for written tests, or participating in interview coaching. The use of civil service exams is intended to promote professionalism, accountability, and the efficient functioning of government agencies.

In the United States, the federal government and many state and local governments use civil service exams as part of their hiring and promotion processes. These exams are administered by the relevant civil service or human resources departments. Candidates who perform well on these exams are often placed on eligibility lists, and government agencies hire or promote individuals from these lists based on their scores and qualifications.

Civil service exams are an essential component of merit-based civil service systems, which aim to ensure that government positions are filled by the most qualified individuals and that public resources are allocated efficiently.

American Government Chapter 15 Quiz

Question 1

1 / 1 pts

Which of the following developments contributed to the growth of bureaucracy in the early 1800s?

  Population growth 

  The Civil War 

Correct!  Rise of party politics 

  Immigration 

 

Question 2

1 / 1 pts

What is the system that rewards party support during elections with bureaucratic appointments after victory?

  The merit system 

  The civil system 

  The electorate system 

Correct!  The spoils system 

 

Question 3

1 / 1 pts

What is required in the Sunshine Act of 1976?

  Multi-headed federal agencies must hold meetings privately. 

Correct!  Multi-headed federal agencies must hold meetings in a public forum on a regular basis. 

  Multi-headed federal agencies may hold meetings publicly or privately 

  Multi-headed federal agencies must produce written transcripts of meetings to the public. 

 

Question 4

1 / 1 pts

What does the merit system require?

  Applicant’s have a history of work with the president 

  Applicant's party identification be identified

Correct!  Applicant’s qualifications be evaluated 

  Applicant’s ideology be evaluated 

 

Question 5

1 / 1 pts

How many cabinet departments are in the federal government?

  20 

  5 

Correct!  15 

  10 

 

Question 6

1 / 1 pts

When did the size and scope of the bureaucracy expand exponentially?

  Cold War 

  WWII 

Correct!  New Deal 

  Vietnam War 

 

Question 7

1 / 1 pts

According to the merit system, how were civil service positions filled?

  Elections 

Correct!  Competitive examinations 

  Promotions 

  Appointments 

 

Question 8

1 / 1 pts

According to the Weberian model, the increasing complexity of life will increase citizen’s demands for what?

  Job opportunities 

  Participation in government 

Correct!  Government services 

  Fair representation 

 

Question 9

1 / 1 pts

What organization was replaced by the Office of Personnel Management (OPM) and the Merit Systems Protection Board (MSPB)?

  The Merit Systems Protection Board 

  The Spoils System 

  The Regulatory Authority 

Correct!  The Civil Service Commission 

 

Question 10

1 / 1 pts

What is a drawback of the merit system?

Correct!  Bureaucrats become too independent. 

  Bureaucrats become less responsive to lobbying. 

  Bureaucrats become too specialized. 

  Bureaucrats become more dependent. 

 

Question 11

1 / 1 pts

According to the monopolistic model, bureaucracy functions are based on the absence of what?

  Citizen participation 

  Interest 

Correct!  Competition 

  Money 

 

Question 12

1 / 1 pts

Which of the following views has a positive perception of the bureaucracy?

  Individualistic model 

Correct!  Acquisitive model 

  Weberian model 

  Monopolistic model 

 

Question 13

1 / 1 pts

Which of the following is a responsibility of the Office of Management and Budget?

  Allocate public and private funds. 

  Manage the transfer of funds to Congress. 

Correct!  Produce the president’s annual budget for the country. 

  Secure funding for bureaucracies. 

 

Question 14

1 / 1 pts

Someone who works in the bureau is known as a(n) _____.

  representative 

  administrator 

Correct!  civil servant 

  public administrator 

 

Question 15

1 / 1 pts

Which of the following is NOT a way in which the president executes oversight?

  Through the Office of Management and Budget 

  Executive orders 

  Appointing heads of the cabinet 

Correct!  Term check-ins with investigators 

 

Question 16

1 / 1 pts

Originally public servants received jobs through ________.

Correct!  patronage 

  party membership 

  graduate schooling 

  merit 

 

Question 17

1 / 1 pts

Which of the following is responsible for overseeing the management of U.S. lands, water, wildlife, and energy resources?

  Health and Human Services 

  Housing and Urban Development 

Correct!  Interior 

  Treasury 

 

Question 18

1 / 1 pts

What is Congress’s most powerful oversight tool?

Correct!  Government Accountability Office 

  Restriction of funds 

  Pocket veto 

  Appropriations 

 

Question 19

1 / 1 pts

Many years ago, the merit system would have required what type of examination?

Correct!  A civil service exam 

  An SAT exam 

  A physical fitness exam 

  An eye exam 

 

Question 20

1 / 1 pts

Which of the following departments was created last?

Correct!  Homeland security 

  Labor 

  Defense 

  Housing and Urban Development