The traditional path to a college degree isn't for everyone. Many individuals find themselves seeking education and personal development opportunities outside the confines of a formal degree program. Non-degree college courses have become increasingly popular for those who want to acquire new skills, explore their interests, and enhance their professional prospects without committing to a full degree. In this article, we will explore the world of non-degree college courses, shedding light on their benefits, types, and how to make the most of them. What Are Non-Degree College Courses? Non-degree college courses, often referred to as continuing education or adult education, encompass a wide array of learning opportunities offered by colleges and universities. These courses do not lead to a degree but instead provide a more flexible, accessible, and targeted approach to learning. Non-degree courses are designed for individuals of all backgrounds and ages who wish to gain specific know
Foreign policy refers to a set of strategies, principles, and actions adopted by a country's government to manage its relations with other nations, international organizations, and global actors. It is a comprehensive framework that outlines a country's approach to international affairs, including its goals, interests, values, and the means by which it interacts with the international community. Foreign policy can cover a wide range of issues, from diplomacy and trade to security, human rights, and development. Here are key elements in defining foreign policy:
Goals and Objectives: Foreign policy defines a country's goals and objectives on the global stage. These goals can include national security, economic interests, human rights advocacy, environmental concerns, and the promotion of values and ideologies.
National Interests: It articulates a nation's core interests, which often include the safety and security of its citizens, economic prosperity, the promotion of its values, and the protection of its sovereignty.
Diplomacy: Foreign policy is often expressed through diplomatic channels, including negotiations, treaties, and international agreements. Diplomacy is a key instrument for managing relations with other nations.
International Alliances and Partnerships: Countries form alliances, partnerships, and coalitions with other nations to achieve common objectives. Foreign policy outlines the principles and commitments underlying these international relationships.
Trade and Economic Relations: Economic interests are an integral part of foreign policy. It includes trade agreements, investment policies, and strategies for economic development.
Security and Defense: National security and defense are critical components of foreign policy. This encompasses military alliances, arms control agreements, and strategies to protect a country's territorial integrity and citizens.
Human Rights and Development: Some foreign policies prioritize human rights advocacy and international development efforts, addressing issues such as poverty reduction, humanitarian assistance, and democracy promotion.
Multilateralism: Many countries engage in multilateral diplomacy and participate in international organizations, such as the United Nations and the World Trade Organization. Foreign policy outlines a country's approach to these forums.
Conflict Resolution: Foreign policy addresses how a country responds to conflicts, including methods for conflict prevention, resolution, and peacekeeping efforts.
Crisis Management: Foreign policy includes strategies for managing crises and emergencies, such as natural disasters, global health pandemics, or international conflicts.
Cultural and Public Diplomacy: Promoting a country's culture, values, and soft power is often part of foreign policy. This can involve cultural exchanges, educational programs, and public diplomacy efforts to improve a country's image abroad.
International Law and Treaties: Foreign policy includes a country's commitment to international law, adherence to treaties, and the pursuit of legal means to address disputes.
National Sovereignty: Foreign policy underscores a country's commitment to maintaining its sovereignty, which includes the right to make independent decisions on domestic and international matters.
Foreign policy is shaped by a country's history, geography, political system, leadership, and the ever-changing global environment. It is a dynamic and evolving framework that requires adaptation to address emerging challenges and opportunities. Effective foreign policy is often characterized by a coherent and consistent approach that aligns with a country's national interests and values while promoting stability and cooperation in international relations.
Foreign policy instruments are the various tools and methods that a country's government uses to implement and achieve its foreign policy objectives on the global stage. These instruments enable a nation to engage with other countries, international organizations, and global actors to advance its interests, values, and goals. Foreign policy instruments encompass a wide range of diplomatic, economic, military, and soft power tools. Here are some key foreign policy instruments:
Diplomacy: Diplomacy is the use of negotiation, dialogue, and communication to manage international relations. It includes a country's diplomatic corps, embassies, ambassadors, and diplomats who engage in formal and informal negotiations with foreign governments.
Treaties and Agreements: Countries enter into treaties, conventions, and bilateral or multilateral agreements to formalize their commitments and cooperation on a wide range of issues, from trade and defense to environmental protection and human rights.
Multilateral Organizations: Participation in international organizations, such as the United Nations (UN), World Trade Organization (WTO), and regional organizations, allows countries to collaborate with other nations to address global challenges and common interests.
Trade and Economic Policy: Economic instruments include trade agreements, tariffs, sanctions, foreign aid, and foreign direct investment (FDI). Countries use these tools to promote economic interests and facilitate international trade.
Foreign Aid and Development Assistance: Providing financial and technical assistance to other countries is a means to promote development, alleviate poverty, and enhance diplomatic relations. Foreign aid can be bilateral or channeled through international organizations.
Sanctions: Sanctions are punitive measures, such as trade restrictions or asset freezes, imposed on countries or entities in response to policy violations, human rights abuses, or security threats. They are often used to pressure or deter governments or individuals.
Military and Security Policy: A nation's military forces and security apparatus are important foreign policy instruments, used to protect national sovereignty, engage in collective defense (through alliances like NATO), and respond to crises or conflicts.
Soft Power: Soft power involves the use of culture, education, media, and public diplomacy to promote a country's values and influence. It can enhance a nation's attractiveness and reputation on the global stage.
Crisis Management: Countries use crisis management instruments, such as conflict resolution, peacekeeping, and humanitarian assistance, to respond to international crises, including armed conflicts, natural disasters, and health emergencies.
Intelligence and Espionage: Intelligence agencies gather information about other countries' actions and intentions to inform foreign policy decisions. Espionage and covert operations may be used for intelligence collection and covert actions.
International Law and Treaties: Legal instruments, including adherence to international law, conventions, and treaties, provide a framework for resolving disputes and upholding a country's commitments on the global stage.
Cultural and Educational Exchange: Promoting a country's culture, education, and values can enhance its soft power and build people-to-people relationships. This may involve cultural exchanges, scholarship programs, and educational partnerships.
Public Relations and Media: Effective use of public relations and media relations is crucial for shaping a country's image abroad and conveying its messages to international audiences.
Environmental and Energy Policy: Foreign policy can include environmental and energy cooperation, such as climate agreements and energy security partnerships.
Foreign policy instruments are carefully chosen and adapted based on a country's foreign policy goals, national interests, and the specific context of international relations. Diplomacy, economic engagement, and military power are the most prominent tools, but soft power, cultural exchanges, and international cooperation also play essential roles in shaping a nation's foreign policy.
Institutional relations in foreign policy refer to the interactions and collaborations between countries and international organizations, institutions, and forums. These interactions are critical for shaping a nation's approach to international affairs and addressing global challenges. Institutional relations encompass a wide range of diplomatic, economic, political, and security aspects. Here are key aspects of institutional relations in foreign policy:
Participation in International Organizations: Countries engage with international organizations such as the United Nations (UN), World Trade Organization (WTO), World Bank, and International Monetary Fund (IMF). They participate in these organizations to address global issues, promote their interests, and adhere to international norms and standards.
Bilateral and Multilateral Relations: Countries establish bilateral relations with other nations and engage in multilateral diplomacy through forums like the United Nations General Assembly, the G20, or regional organizations (e.g., the European Union, ASEAN). Multilateral relations often involve addressing common global challenges, from climate change to terrorism.
Diplomatic Missions: Diplomatic missions, including embassies, consulates, and permanent missions to international organizations, serve as primary channels for engaging in institutional relations. They facilitate dialogue, negotiation, and representation at the global level.
Global Governance and Diplomacy: Diplomats represent their countries in international forums and negotiations on issues such as peace and security, trade agreements, climate change, human rights, and public health.
Trade and Economic Cooperation: Institutional relations include economic diplomacy and trade negotiations within organizations like the WTO. Trade agreements are essential for promoting economic interests and enhancing international commerce.
Security and Defense Alliances: Countries often form security and defense alliances, such as NATO, to address common security threats. These alliances involve cooperation on military strategy, collective defense, and conflict resolution.
Human Rights and Humanitarian Issues: Countries engage with international institutions to promote and protect human rights, provide humanitarian assistance in crisis situations, and contribute to global development efforts.
Conflict Resolution and Peacekeeping: International organizations, particularly the United Nations, play a vital role in conflict resolution and peacekeeping missions. Countries contribute troops and resources to these missions to help restore stability in conflict-affected regions.
Health and Pandemic Response: Institutional relations have become increasingly important in addressing global health crises, such as pandemics. Countries cooperate through international organizations like the World Health Organization (WHO) to respond to health emergencies.
Environmental and Climate Diplomacy: International institutions, including the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), are central to global efforts to address climate change, reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and promote environmental sustainability.
International Law and Dispute Resolution: Countries rely on international law and mechanisms like the International Court of Justice (ICJ) to resolve disputes and uphold legal agreements. Compliance with international law is an essential aspect of institutional relations.
Trade and Economic Agreements: Countries negotiate and enter into trade agreements and economic partnerships to promote trade and investment. Regional trade blocs, such as the European Union and the African Union, facilitate regional economic cooperation.
Cultural and Educational Exchange: Countries promote cultural and educational exchange programs to build people-to-people relationships, enhance soft power, and deepen mutual understanding.
Institutional relations in foreign policy reflect a nation's commitment to working with other countries and international organizations to address global challenges, advance shared interests, and uphold international norms and principles. The effectiveness of these relations often depends on a country's diplomatic capabilities, its role in international organizations, and its ability to collaborate and coordinate with other countries on a wide range of issues.
Foreign policy is the set of strategies, principles, and actions that a country's government employs to manage its relations with other nations and international organizations. Various approaches and strategies have been developed over time to guide a nation's foreign policy decisions and actions. These approaches reflect a country's goals, values, and geopolitical context. Here are some common approaches to foreign policy:
Realism: Realism is an approach that emphasizes a nation's pursuit of its own self-interest, primarily in the realms of national security and power. Realists believe that international relations are inherently characterized by competition and conflict, and that states should prioritize their own interests and security over other considerations. Realist foreign policy often involves a focus on military strength, strategic alliances, and the pursuit of power in the international system.
Idealism: Idealism, also known as liberal internationalism, focuses on the promotion of values such as democracy, human rights, and international cooperation. Idealist foreign policy places a strong emphasis on diplomacy, multilateral institutions, and international law as tools for conflict resolution and the advancement of a rules-based international order.
Neorealism (Structural Realism): Neorealism builds on the realist approach but emphasizes the structural constraints of the international system. It argues that states' behavior is shaped by the distribution of power among major actors, and that a balance of power is crucial to maintain stability and prevent conflict.
Pragmatism: Pragmatic foreign policy takes a flexible and problem-solving approach. It is guided by the pursuit of specific national interests, with a willingness to adapt strategies and alliances based on changing circumstances. Pragmatic foreign policy may involve cooperation with a variety of states, organizations, and actors, depending on the issue at hand.
Non-Alignment: Non-alignment is an approach taken by countries that seek to remain unaligned with any major power bloc or alliance. These countries pursue an independent foreign policy, often emphasizing neutrality and a commitment to peace, and they may be involved in various regional and global organizations.
Globalism: Globalism emphasizes a nation's active engagement in the global community. It involves a commitment to addressing global challenges, such as climate change, health pandemics, and poverty, through international cooperation, multilateralism, and the promotion of global governance.
Nationalism: Nationalism in foreign policy emphasizes the protection of national sovereignty, national identity, and national interests. Nationalist foreign policy often involves a focus on unilateral actions, protectionism, and the pursuit of policies that prioritize domestic interests over international commitments.
Economic Focus: Some countries adopt a foreign policy approach that prioritizes economic interests, such as trade and economic development. Economic-focused foreign policy may involve negotiating trade agreements, promoting investments, and participating in economic organizations to boost prosperity.
Regionalism: Regionalist foreign policy focuses on enhancing cooperation and integration within a specific geographic region. This approach emphasizes regional organizations and alliances and may involve addressing regional conflicts, economic collaboration, and shared security concerns.
Humanitarianism: Humanitarian foreign policy places a strong emphasis on humanitarian concerns, such as responding to humanitarian crises, promoting human rights, and providing humanitarian aid and development assistance to countries in need.
Soft Power: Soft power foreign policy emphasizes a country's attractiveness and influence through culture, education, and diplomacy. It aims to shape perceptions and build goodwill toward the nation.
Foreign policy approaches are not mutually exclusive, and countries may employ a combination of these approaches depending on the specific issue or geopolitical context. The choice of approach is influenced by a country's history, values, national interests, leadership, and the dynamic nature of the international system. Effective foreign policy often requires flexibility and adaptation to changing global circumstances.
If I were the President of the United States and wanted to gather support for a new foreign policy initiative, I would approach the following three key U.S. foreign policy actors:
Congress: The U.S. Congress, including both the House of Representatives and the Senate, plays a crucial role in foreign policy. Approaching Congress is essential because it is responsible for approving international agreements, trade deals, and funding for foreign policy initiatives. Engaging with Congress through consultations, briefings, and negotiations would be vital to secure legislative support and funding for the new initiative.
State Department: The U.S. Department of State is the primary government agency responsible for the formulation and execution of foreign policy. Working closely with the State Department is critical because it has the expertise, diplomatic resources, and connections to carry out foreign policy initiatives effectively. Collaboration with the State Department's career diplomats and experts would help ensure the initiative's success.
Allies and International Organizations: Engaging with U.S. allies and key international organizations is essential to build international support for the new foreign policy initiative. Close cooperation with allies strengthens the U.S. position, enhances collective security, and helps share the burden of addressing global challenges. International organizations, such as the United Nations, can provide platforms for multilateral cooperation and legitimacy for the initiative.
As for the most advantageous school of thought for the United States to follow in foreign policy in the future, the choice depends on the specific circumstances and evolving global dynamics. However, a pragmatic and adaptable approach, which incorporates elements from different schools of thought, may be the most beneficial. This approach could include elements of realism, idealism, and globalism, among others. Here's why:
Realism: Realism's focus on national interests and power dynamics remains relevant in international relations. Emphasizing national security and strategic interests can help safeguard U.S. interests and maintain stability in an unpredictable global environment.
Idealism: Idealism's emphasis on international cooperation, human rights, and a rules-based order aligns with the values and principles that the United States has historically promoted. Championing these ideals can enhance U.S. soft power and strengthen diplomatic relations.
Globalism: In an increasingly interconnected world, global challenges like climate change and pandemics require a collaborative approach. Engaging with international organizations, promoting global governance, and addressing transnational issues collectively are essential.
Adopting an adaptable and pragmatic approach allows the United States to tailor its foreign policy to specific challenges and opportunities as they arise. It also acknowledges the complex and dynamic nature of international relations, where a one-size-fits-all approach may not be effective. The key is to be guided by core principles while remaining flexible in response to the evolving global landscape and the unique characteristics of each international issue.
If you were president and wanted to gather support for a new foreign policy initiative, which three U.S. foreign policy actors would you approach and why? What do you think is the most advantageous school of thought for the United States to follow in foreign policy in the future? Why?
I would gather the director of office management and budget, the national security advisor, and the US trade representative. Picking the office of management and budget because the policy would never work without making sure there's a proper budget behind it. The security advisor would be there to assist me when it comes to foreign policy issues and would be able to give valuable input especially when it comes to being able to point out possible consequences of policies that I'm trying to consider. And US trade representative since I would need information on what the numbers of the current trading market. Valuable information on previous past policies that haven't worked to prevent making the same mistakes.
I think the best school of thought is really a more flexible approach to a certain degree. We see how foreign policy is working for the US currently in that we rush into pointless proxy wars that we don't belong in and when we pull out we leave our technology for the enemy even our trade system really isn't set up accordingly. We should have never sent most of our work overseas to countries that have slave labor as a method of cheap products. The Tarif system should have been used to keep similar cheap products that are the same of what we make here in the us to be of equal or more cost to keep industry here. We also shouldn't hand out free money to other countries and be more focused on building infrastructure here. And when it comes to war we should really only protect those that have maintained positive relationships with us unless it somehow benefits our people. Losing military on useless battles and technology only hurts us in the long run especially giving billions in relief support to other countries while inflation is running at 7% or 8% or higher when you considered numbers are deflated to make it not as bad as it is. Only problem with renewable energy is that the approach the US is going with now isn't economical and when it comes to the policy of renewable energy we don't really have a "safe" non-pollutive method making use of lithium which is created from many toxic materials which are an environmental hazard isn't really safe. Nuclear is claimed to be a "clean" energy but we see the dangers of it especially the improper cleanup when something goes wrong not to mention the already lack of storage of those wastes. Like Savannah River Site (SRS) which is already filled with tons of nuclear waste across its 198,046 acres. We have no safe way to store it. Wind generation is loud and not accessible without wind its also a huge hazard to wildlife and kills birds. Gas turbines aren't efficient enough to compete with coal or nuclear and still includes burning natural gas while it is cleaner then coal no one will use it with a 25 to 30% efficiency rate. On the other hand though fossil fuel could be used a lot more efficiently then currently used. Most people don't know but shell has a eco marathon and getting over 100 mpg with cars that marathon has been going on since the 1930's so its clear if we wanted more efficient cars we could be using them now but remember its all control too. Oil companies don't want more efficiency. Also too gasoline as it is currently isn't that efficient but as a vapor it goes much further than currently as well. The saturated vapor volume of an average gallon of liquid gasoline when fully evaporated is 160 gallons of vapor at 60° F and sea level. Aside from the large gain of vapor density that you would get it would lower overall emissions and increase cars current efficiency rate from 25 to 30. But by doing that oil companies wouldn't make as much because a gallon of vapor fuel would cost 0.03 cents vs 5 dollar gallon. They want to sell more not less. And in a hybrid system you could extend the efficiency even more.
The "two presidencies thesis" is a political science concept introduced by political scientist Aaron Wildavsky in his 1966 book "The Two Presidencies." This thesis suggests that U.S. presidents are more successful and exert greater influence over foreign policy and national security matters compared to their influence over domestic policy issues.
The two presidencies thesis is based on the idea that presidents tend to enjoy greater leeway and deference from Congress and the American public when it comes to foreign policy and national security matters for several reasons:
National Security Concerns: Issues related to national security, such as defense, intelligence, and foreign policy, are often seen as more critical to the nation's survival. As a result, presidents are granted more authority in these areas due to the need for quick and decisive action.
Information Asymmetry: Presidents often possess more classified information and expertise on foreign policy and national security issues than Congress or the public. This information asymmetry allows presidents to shape the foreign policy agenda and gain support for their initiatives.
Public Trust: Historically, presidents have been granted a higher level of public trust when it comes to foreign policy. The public is more likely to defer to the president's judgment on international matters, particularly in times of crisis or conflict.
Bipartisanship: Foreign policy and national security issues have often seen more bipartisan cooperation in Congress. This can make it easier for presidents to build consensus and secure support for their policies in these areas.
In contrast, domestic policy issues tend to be more contentious and subject to greater congressional scrutiny and influence. Presidents may encounter more resistance and obstacles when trying to enact domestic policy changes. The two presidencies thesis suggests that Congress is generally more willing to challenge and counterbalance presidential authority in domestic policy matters.
It's important to note that the two presidencies thesis is a theory and has been the subject of debate and discussion in political science. While it highlights the different dynamics between foreign and domestic policy, it doesn't suggest that presidents are entirely powerless in domestic affairs. Presidential influence in both policy realms varies depending on the political context, the president's leadership style, and the specific policy issues at hand.
"Guns versus butter" is a classic economic and political concept used to illustrate the trade-off between military and defense spending (guns) and domestic social and economic programs (butter). This metaphorical framework highlights the choices that governments must make when allocating resources between these two fundamental areas.
Here's a more detailed explanation of the guns versus butter concept:
Guns: In this context, "guns" represent military and defense expenditures, including spending on the armed forces, defense equipment, and national security. Investment in guns is intended to maintain and enhance a nation's security and military capabilities.
Butter: "Butter" symbolizes domestic social programs and public goods, such as healthcare, education, infrastructure, social welfare, and other services that contribute to the well-being and development of a nation's citizens. Investment in butter focuses on improving living standards, reducing poverty, and providing essential services.
The guns versus butter framework serves several purposes:
Resource Allocation: It underscores the challenge of allocating limited resources, such as government funds, human capital, and time, between competing priorities—national security and domestic well-being.
Policy Choices: Governments must make choices between defense and domestic spending based on their national priorities, threats, and values. The concept highlights the inherent trade-off between investing in military strength and addressing societal needs.
Public Opinion: Public opinion and political debates often revolve around the guns versus butter dilemma. Citizens, advocacy groups, and policymakers express their preferences for spending in one area over the other, and these preferences can shape policy decisions.
Fiscal Policy: The concept has implications for fiscal policy, as it relates to government budgets, taxation, and deficit spending. Government decisions about the balance between guns and butter affect the overall fiscal health of the nation.
The balance between guns and butter can change over time due to shifts in a country's security environment, evolving social and economic priorities, and changes in leadership. For example, during times of conflict or heightened security threats, governments may allocate more resources to military spending. During periods of economic growth and social development, there may be greater emphasis on butter, including investments in education, healthcare, and infrastructure.
The concept has been used historically to analyze and critique government spending decisions and to understand the consequences of prioritizing one area over the other. It highlights the complex and dynamic relationship between a nation's security and its citizens' well-being, as well as the policy choices that governments must make to strike the right balance.
The Senate Foreign Relations Committee is a standing committee of the United States Senate responsible for overseeing and influencing the nation's foreign policy and international relations. It plays a crucial role in shaping the U.S. government's foreign policy decisions, conducting oversight of the State Department and other foreign policy agencies, and advising the Senate on international matters. Here are some key aspects of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee:
Jurisdiction: The committee has jurisdiction over a wide range of foreign policy issues, including U.S. relations with other countries, international treaties and agreements, international trade, foreign aid and assistance programs, the United Nations, and the State Department.
Confirmation Hearings: The committee plays a pivotal role in the confirmation process for key positions in the State Department and other foreign policy agencies. It conducts confirmation hearings for nominees to positions like Secretary of State, U.S. ambassadors, and other high-level diplomatic and international affairs positions.
Legislation and Treaties: The committee reviews, amends, and makes recommendations on foreign policy-related legislation, as well as international treaties and agreements. While the Senate as a whole must provide final approval for treaties, the committee's input and recommendations are influential in the process.
Oversight: The committee conducts oversight of the State Department and other foreign policy agencies, ensuring that they are carrying out their duties effectively and in accordance with U.S. law and policy objectives.
Hearings: The committee holds hearings on a wide range of foreign policy and international affairs topics, often featuring expert witnesses, administration officials, and others with expertise in international relations.
Bipartisanship: Foreign policy and international relations have historically been areas where bipartisan cooperation is encouraged. The committee often seeks to build consensus on foreign policy matters to present a united front to the international community.
Subcommittees: The committee has various subcommittees that focus on specific regions, issues, or aspects of U.S. foreign policy. These subcommittees allow for in-depth examination and oversight of particular subjects, such as the Middle East, Asia, or international development.
Advisory Role: The committee advises the Senate on foreign policy issues, making recommendations on how the United States should address specific international challenges or opportunities.
The Senate Foreign Relations Committee plays a crucial role in ensuring that the United States conducts its foreign policy in a manner that aligns with its national interests, values, and international commitments. It serves as a forum for deliberation, debate, and consensus-building on matters of international significance and ensures that the U.S. government is well-prepared to address the complex and evolving challenges of the global stage.
The Tiananmen Square massacre, also known as the June Fourth Incident, was a violent crackdown on pro-democracy demonstrators in Beijing, China, in June 1989. It remains a highly sensitive and controversial topic in China, with the Chinese government actively suppressing discussion and remembrance of the event. Here are key details about the Tiananmen Square massacre:
Background: The protests in Tiananmen Square were part of a broader pro-democracy movement that had been growing in China in the late 1980s. Demonstrators, largely composed of students and intellectuals, called for political reforms, greater transparency, and an end to government corruption.
Duration: The protests began in April 1989 and grew in size over the following weeks, with thousands of people, including workers and residents of Beijing, joining the demonstrators in the square.
Martial Law: As the protests continued, the Chinese government, under the leadership of the Chinese Communist Party, declared martial law in Beijing in late May 1989. Troops from the People's Liberation Army (PLA) were deployed to the city.
Violent Crackdown: On the night of June 3 and into the early hours of June 4, the PLA moved into Tiananmen Square, using rifles and tanks to suppress the demonstrators. The Chinese government estimated the death toll at around 200-300, while other estimates, including from human rights organizations, put the number much higher, potentially in the thousands.
International Response: The international community, including the United States and other Western countries, strongly condemned the violent crackdown and imposed sanctions on China. The event strained China's diplomatic relations with many countries.
Government Response: The Chinese government labeled the protests and subsequent crackdown as a "counterrevolutionary riot." It maintained tight control over information, censored reporting on the event, and arrested many protest leaders. The government has not released an official death toll or conducted an open inquiry into the events.
Legacy: The Tiananmen Square massacre had a lasting impact on China's political landscape. The government's response effectively ended the pro-democracy movement and strengthened the Chinese Communist Party's grip on power. The event remains a taboo topic in China, and discussions or remembrance of the event are tightly controlled.
30th Anniversary and Subsequent Anniversaries: Each year, on the anniversary of the Tiananmen Square massacre, there are calls for remembrance, justice, and a reevaluation of the events. However, the Chinese government responds with heightened security measures and crackdowns on any public gatherings or memorials.
The Tiananmen Square massacre remains a highly sensitive and controversial topic both in China and in the international community. The Chinese government's strict censorship and control over information make it difficult to access reliable data or to openly discuss the events of June 1989.
Neoconservatism is a political and foreign policy ideology that emerged in the United States in the mid-20th century and became particularly influential in the early 21st century. Neoconservatives, often referred to as neocons, are known for their advocacy of a robust and interventionist foreign policy, a commitment to promoting democracy and human rights worldwide, and a strong emphasis on American military power. Here are some key characteristics and principles associated with neoconservatism:
Strong Nationalism: Neoconservatives emphasize American exceptionalism and promote a strong and assertive U.S. role in world affairs. They believe in maintaining a powerful and influential America on the global stage.
Promotion of Democracy: Neocons place a significant emphasis on promoting democracy and political liberalization worldwide. They argue that the spread of democratic values and institutions is in America's national interest and can contribute to global stability.
Support for Military Intervention: Neoconservatives are often associated with a willingness to use military force to achieve foreign policy objectives, especially when it comes to advancing democracy and protecting U.S. interests. They were influential in the lead-up to the Iraq War in 2003.
Skepticism of International Organizations: Neocons are generally skeptical of the effectiveness of international organizations and treaties, preferring unilateral or coalition-based approaches to addressing global challenges.
Concern About Rogue States and Terrorism: Neoconservatives are deeply concerned about the threat posed by rogue states, such as North Korea and Iran, as well as non-state actors like terrorist organizations. They advocate taking strong measures to counter these threats.
Ideological Roots: Many neoconservatives have their roots in liberal or left-wing political thought but became disillusioned with what they saw as the failures of liberal and realist foreign policy approaches. They believe that they are championing a more principled and moral approach to international relations.
Influence in Republican Party: Neoconservatism has had a significant influence within the Republican Party, especially during the George W. Bush administration. Key figures associated with neoconservatism, such as Paul Wolfowitz and Richard Perle, held influential positions in the Bush administration.
Criticism and Controversy: Neoconservatism is not without controversy. Critics argue that neoconservative policies, particularly the 2003 invasion of Iraq, contributed to instability in the Middle East and that the promotion of democracy through military intervention can lead to unintended consequences.
It's important to note that neoconservatism is a complex and evolving ideology, and not all individuals associated with it share the same views or approaches to foreign policy. While it reached its peak influence in the early 2000s, its prominence has waned in subsequent years, and U.S. foreign policy has seen shifts and changes in response to evolving global challenges and political dynamics.
The balance of power is a fundamental concept in international relations and political theory that refers to the distribution of power among states or other actors in the international system. It is a key framework for understanding how states interact and how stability is maintained in the global arena. Here are the key aspects of the balance of power:
Distribution of Power: The balance of power concerns the distribution of power among states. This power can take various forms, including military, economic, political, and diplomatic capabilities. The central idea is that no single state or group of states should become overwhelmingly powerful, as this could lead to domination and instability in the international system.
Multipolarity, Bipolarity, and Unipolarity: The balance of power can exist in different structural configurations:
- Multipolarity: In a multipolar system, power is distributed among several major states or blocs of states. This can create a more stable environment as multiple actors can check and balance each other's ambitions.
- Bipolarity: In a bipolar system, power is concentrated in two major superpowers. The Cold War, with the United States and the Soviet Union as the primary superpowers, is an example of bipolarity.
- Unipolarity: In a unipolar system, one state or actor is significantly more powerful than all others. The post-Cold War era was often described as unipolar, with the United States as the dominant superpower.
Balancing and Bandwagoning: States respond to changes in power dynamics by either balancing or bandwagoning:
- Balancing: This involves weaker states forming alliances or coalitions to counterbalance the power of a stronger state. They may build up their own military capabilities or seek support from other great powers.
- Bandwagoning: In contrast, bandwagoning occurs when states align themselves with the stronger power, often out of fear or opportunism, rather than attempting to oppose it.
Shifts in Power: The balance of power is not static and can shift over time due to changes in the capabilities of states, the emergence of new powers, or the decline of existing ones. These shifts can lead to adjustments in international relations.
Deterrence and Security: The balance of power can serve as a deterrent to aggression. States are less likely to initiate conflicts when they believe the costs and risks of doing so are high due to the potential responses of other powerful states.
Conflict and Cooperation: The balance of power can lead to both conflict and cooperation. When states perceive a threat from a rising power, they may engage in competitive behaviors. However, the need for cooperation to address common challenges, such as global security, trade, and climate change, can also shape the international landscape.
Alliances: Alliances and international organizations play a role in balancing or rebalancing power. States may form alliances to enhance their security and influence, particularly when the distribution of power is perceived as threatening.
War and Peace: The balance of power is closely tied to the prevention of war. When states perceive a stable balance of power, they are less likely to engage in conflicts that could disrupt that stability.
The concept of the balance of power is central to the study of international relations and has been influential in shaping the strategies of states throughout history. It serves as a tool for analyzing the behavior of states and understanding the dynamics of international politics, including the causes of war and the conditions for peace.
Hard power is a term used in international relations to describe a nation's ability to influence other countries or achieve its objectives through coercive or forceful means, typically involving military force, economic pressure, or other forms of direct intimidation. Hard power contrasts with soft power, which relies on persuasion, diplomacy, and attraction. Here are key components of hard power:
Military Power: This is the most prominent form of hard power. A country's military capabilities, including its armed forces, weaponry, and ability to project military force, are critical components of hard power. The threat or use of military force can be a decisive tool in achieving strategic objectives.
Economic Power: Economic strength can be leveraged for hard power. Economic tools may include sanctions, embargoes, or the manipulation of trade and finance to exert influence or impose costs on other nations. A strong and resilient economy can provide resources for military power and political influence.
Coercion and Force: The use of force or threats of force to compel other countries to comply with a nation's demands is a classic expression of hard power. This can involve military interventions, blockades, or the threat of military action.
Alliances and Military Coalitions: Forming alliances and military coalitions with other nations can enhance a country's hard power. Collective security arrangements can deter potential adversaries and provide a united front in the face of threats.
Nuclear Deterrence: The possession of nuclear weapons represents a unique form of hard power. The credible threat of nuclear retaliation can deter other countries from hostile actions.
Territorial Control: Control over territory, particularly strategically important areas, can enhance hard power. Geographic advantages, such as control over vital sea lanes, can be a significant asset.
Geopolitical Influence: A nation's geopolitical position and its ability to project power regionally or globally can be a source of hard power. It can determine a country's ability to protect its interests and influence events in its vicinity.
Covert Operations: Intelligence agencies and covert operations can be a tool of hard power. These activities can include espionage, sabotage, and the manipulation of political processes in other nations.
Arms Sales: The sale of arms and military equipment to other countries can be a means of exerting influence and building strategic partnerships. Major arms suppliers can use arms sales to enhance their relationships with client states.
Military Bases and Presence: Maintaining military bases and a forward military presence in strategic regions can project hard power and demonstrate a country's commitment to its interests and allies.
Hard power is often used in concert with soft power, which relies on attraction, cultural influence, and diplomacy to achieve foreign policy goals. The balance between hard and soft power can vary depending on a nation's strategic objectives and the specific international context. The effective use of hard power requires careful consideration of political, diplomatic, and strategic factors to achieve desired outcomes while minimizing risks and unintended consequences.
A sharply focused foreign policy refers to a foreign policy approach that is highly targeted, clear, and specific in its objectives and priorities. Instead of pursuing a broad and generalized foreign policy agenda, a sharply focused approach concentrates on a limited set of key priorities or issues that a nation aims to address or advance in its international relations. Here are some key characteristics and advantages of a sharply focused foreign policy:
Clear Objectives: A sharply focused foreign policy sets clear and well-defined objectives. It identifies specific goals and priorities that a nation seeks to achieve in its interactions with other countries and on the global stage.
Resource Allocation: It allows for the efficient allocation of a nation's diplomatic, economic, and military resources. By concentrating efforts on a limited number of critical issues, a nation can direct resources where they are most needed.
Strategic Decision-Making: Sharply focused foreign policy involves strategic decision-making. It prioritizes certain issues or regions based on their importance to national interests and values.
Effectiveness: A sharply focused approach can lead to greater effectiveness in achieving foreign policy goals. By concentrating efforts, a nation can allocate resources and political capital more effectively to address specific challenges or opportunities.
Consistency: It fosters consistency in foreign policy. With clearly defined objectives, a nation can pursue a consistent and coherent approach to international relations, reducing the risk of contradictory or confusing actions.
Public and Congressional Support: A sharply focused foreign policy can be easier to communicate and sell to the public and the legislative branch. It provides a clear narrative for why certain issues or priorities are essential for the nation's well-being.
Alliance and Partnership Building: A focused foreign policy approach can make it easier to build alliances and partnerships with other countries that share similar priorities or interests. It allows for deeper collaboration on common goals.
Risk Mitigation: By focusing on specific issues or regions, a nation can better manage and mitigate risks associated with its foreign policy. It can allocate resources for crisis response and conflict prevention in a more targeted manner.
Adaptability: While sharply focused, such a foreign policy approach should also be adaptable. It allows a nation to adjust its priorities as global circumstances change and new challenges or opportunities arise.
Global Impact: Concentrating efforts on key areas or issues can enable a nation to have a more significant and measurable impact on the international stage. It can play a leadership role in addressing specific global challenges.
Examples of a sharply focused foreign policy approach could include a nation concentrating on issues like counterterrorism, climate change, promoting human rights, or enhancing economic partnerships in specific regions. The specific focus would depend on the nation's unique circumstances, interests, and values.
It's important to note that a sharply focused foreign policy does not mean neglecting other international matters entirely. It means placing a heightened emphasis on a select number of priorities while still managing other aspects of foreign policy. The choice of focus should align with a nation's long-term strategic goals and its assessment of the international environment.
The Iraq War Surge, often referred to as the "Iraq Troop Surge" or the "Iraq War 'Surge,'" was a significant change in U.S. military strategy in Iraq during the Iraq War (also known as the Second Gulf War). The surge was initiated in 2007 and represented a major shift in the U.S. approach to the ongoing conflict in Iraq. Here are the key details about the Iraq War Surge:
Background:
- The Iraq War began in 2003 with the U.S.-led invasion that toppled Saddam Hussein's regime. The subsequent years saw a complex insurgency, sectarian violence, and instability in Iraq.
Key Features of the Surge:
Increase in Troop Levels: The most prominent aspect of the surge was the increase in the number of U.S. troops deployed to Iraq. In January 2007, President George W. Bush announced the deployment of an additional 20,000 troops to Iraq.
Counterinsurgency Strategy: The surge involved a shift in military strategy toward a counterinsurgency (COIN) approach. This approach focused on protecting and winning the trust of the Iraqi population while targeting and eliminating insurgent and extremist threats.
Partnership with Iraqi Security Forces: The surge also emphasized collaboration with and training of Iraqi security forces to improve their capabilities and enhance their role in maintaining security.
Increase in Provincial Reconstruction Teams: Efforts were made to increase the number of Provincial Reconstruction Teams (PRTs) to support the rebuilding of local governance, infrastructure, and services.
Focus on Securing Baghdad: A key part of the surge was to secure the capital city, Baghdad, which had been a major center of violence and instability. This involved the establishment of joint security stations and the presence of U.S. forces in key neighborhoods.
Sunni Awakening: The surge coincided with a significant development in Iraq known as the Sunni Awakening or the Sons of Iraq. In some Sunni-dominated areas, Sunni tribal leaders and insurgents turned against al-Qaeda in Iraq and began cooperating with U.S. and Iraqi forces.
Outcomes and Controversy:
The Iraq War Surge is often associated with improved security conditions in Iraq, particularly in Baghdad. Violent incidents decreased, and the surge contributed to the decline in sectarian violence and the suppression of al-Qaeda in Iraq.
However, the surge remains a subject of debate and controversy. Critics argue that the improved security was temporary and that the underlying political problems in Iraq were not adequately addressed.
The surge was not a panacea, and the Iraq War continued for several more years. The ultimate withdrawal of U.S. forces from Iraq was not completed until December 2011.
The effectiveness and long-term consequences of the surge continue to be a subject of analysis and discussion within the fields of foreign policy and military strategy.
The Iraq War Surge represents a pivotal moment in the Iraq War and U.S. foreign policy. It demonstrated the potential of a changed military strategy and contributed to a period of relative stability in Iraq. However, it also highlighted the complexities and challenges of post-conflict stabilization and the importance of addressing underlying political and sectarian issues.
The Cold War, which lasted roughly from the end of World War II in 1945 until the early 1990s, had profound and far-reaching effects on the world, reshaping international relations, politics, and global dynamics. Here are some of the key effects and consequences of the Cold War:
Bi-Polar World: The Cold War created a bi-polar world order, with the United States and the Soviet Union as the two superpowers. This bipolarity defined international politics during the era, influencing alliances, conflicts, and power dynamics.
Arms Race: The competition between the United States and the Soviet Union led to a massive arms race, with both countries developing and stockpiling nuclear weapons. This arms race heightened global security concerns and led to the doctrine of Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD).
Proxy Wars: The Cold War was characterized by proxy wars fought in various parts of the world, such as the Korean War, Vietnam War, and conflicts in Africa, where the superpowers supported opposing sides. These proxy wars often had devastating consequences for the countries involved.
Space Race: The Cold War fueled the Space Race, leading to significant advancements in science and technology, including the launch of the first artificial satellites and humans into space.
NATO and Warsaw Pact: Military alliances, such as the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in the West and the Warsaw Pact in the East, were formed to provide collective security. These alliances played a crucial role in shaping post-World War II Europe.
Ideological Competition: The Cold War was also an ideological struggle between capitalism and democracy in the West and communism in the East. The ideological rivalry influenced domestic policies, international relations, and political dynamics worldwide.
Globalization: The Cold War era marked the beginning of globalization, with increased economic, cultural, and technological interconnections between countries. It influenced trade, communication, and the spread of ideas.
Cultural and Artistic Impact: The cultural influence of the United States and the Soviet Union extended globally. This period saw the export of American music, movies, and consumer culture as well as Soviet literature and art. The period's tensions also inspired significant artistic and literary works.
Human Rights and Diplomacy: The Cold War had implications for human rights and diplomacy. Issues such as the Cuban Missile Crisis and nuclear arms control negotiations reflected the urgency of diplomacy during the era.
Fall of the Berlin Wall and End of the Cold War: The Cold War concluded with the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 and the eventual dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. This marked the end of the Cold War and the beginning of a new era in global politics.
Post-Cold War Conflicts: The end of the Cold War led to a reconfiguration of global politics, with new challenges and conflicts emerging, including the Balkan Wars and conflicts in the Middle East.
Post-Cold War Expansion of Democracy: The end of the Cold War opened up opportunities for the spread of democracy in Central and Eastern Europe. Many countries transitioned to democratic systems.
Multipolar World: The post-Cold War era has seen the emergence of new global powers and a shift toward a more multipolar world, with the United States, Russia, China, and other countries vying for influence.
The Cold War's impact was felt in virtually all aspects of global affairs and continues to shape international relations and geopolitics. Its legacy continues to influence contemporary foreign policy, security concerns, and the evolving dynamics of the international system.
The National Security Act of 1947 is a key piece of legislation in the United States that had a profound impact on the organization and structure of the U.S. national security apparatus. It governs several aspects of national security and defense policy. Here are the primary areas it governs:
Creation of the Department of Defense (DoD): The National Security Act of 1947 established the Department of Defense as a single, unified military department, replacing the Department of War and the Department of the Navy. The DoD is responsible for coordinating and supervising all agencies and functions of the armed forces.
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA): The act created the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) to serve as the primary intelligence-gathering and analysis agency for the U.S. government. The CIA is responsible for collecting, analyzing, and disseminating intelligence related to national security.
National Security Council (NSC): The NSC was established by the act as the principal forum for the President of the United States to consider national security and foreign policy matters with his senior national security advisors and cabinet officials. It plays a crucial role in advising the President on national security and foreign policy decisions.
Joint Chiefs of Staff: The act formalized the role of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS), which consists of the highest-ranking military officers from each branch of the U.S. armed forces. The JCS provides military advice to the President and the Secretary of Defense.
National Security Resources Board (NSRB): The NSRB was created to oversee the mobilization and allocation of resources in times of national security emergencies. It was later absorbed into the National Security Council.
National Military Establishment (NME): The act created the NME, which included the Secretary of Defense, the Department of the Army, the Department of the Navy, and the Department of the Air Force. It was an early precursor to the Department of Defense.
Civilian Control of the Military: The National Security Act of 1947 reinforced the principle of civilian control over the military by establishing the Secretary of Defense as a civilian official who would oversee the Department of Defense.
Consolidation of Intelligence Functions: The act aimed to streamline and centralize the country's intelligence functions by creating the CIA and by directing coordination between various intelligence agencies.
Oversight of National Security: The act established congressional oversight mechanisms to ensure accountability and transparency in national security matters. It called for regular reports and consultation with Congress.
The National Security Act of 1947 was a response to the challenges and lessons of World War II and the recognition of the need for a more coordinated and efficient national security structure during the early years of the Cold War. It laid the foundation for the modern U.S. national security apparatus and the role of the United States in international affairs. Over the years, it has been amended and updated to reflect changing national security priorities and evolving threats.
Liberal internationalism is a foreign policy and international relations philosophy that advocates for a cooperative and rules-based approach to addressing global challenges. It emphasizes the importance of international institutions, diplomacy, and the promotion of liberal democratic values in shaping international relations. Advocates of liberal internationalism argue for a more interconnected and interdependent world where cooperation and multilateralism are central. Key proponents and figures associated with liberal internationalism include:
Woodrow Wilson: The 28th President of the United States, Woodrow Wilson, is often considered one of the earliest proponents of liberal internationalism. His vision for the League of Nations, which was established following World War I, aimed to promote diplomacy, collective security, and self-determination for nations.
Franklin D. Roosevelt: President Franklin D. Roosevelt played a pivotal role in shaping the post-World War II international order. He was a driving force behind the establishment of the United Nations and the principles outlined in the Atlantic Charter, which emphasized self-determination, disarmament, and freedom from want and fear.
Eleanor Roosevelt: As the First Lady of the United States, Eleanor Roosevelt was a passionate advocate for human rights and played a significant role in the drafting of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted by the United Nations in 1948.
John F. Kennedy: President John F. Kennedy's administration embraced liberal internationalism in various ways. His support for the Alliance for Progress in Latin America, the establishment of the Peace Corps, and his handling of the Cuban Missile Crisis reflected a commitment to diplomacy and international cooperation.
Jimmy Carter: President Jimmy Carter's administration placed a strong emphasis on human rights as a central component of U.S. foreign policy. He advocated for the promotion of democracy and respect for human rights as key elements of global stability.
Bill Clinton: President Bill Clinton's administration promoted liberal internationalism through its support for international organizations, such as the United Nations and NATO. His presidency also saw U.S. engagement in efforts to address global issues, including climate change, globalization, and human rights.
Madeleine Albright: As U.S. Secretary of State during the Clinton administration, Madeleine Albright advocated for a multilateral approach to international challenges and diplomacy. She played a key role in shaping U.S. foreign policy during her tenure.
Hillary Clinton: Former U.S. Secretary of State and presidential candidate Hillary Clinton has been associated with liberal internationalism. During her time as Secretary of State, she advocated for a robust U.S. role in international institutions and diplomacy.
Joseph Biden: President Joe Biden has emphasized a return to multilateralism and a commitment to international institutions and alliances. His foreign policy approach aligns with liberal internationalist principles, and he has stressed the importance of addressing global challenges collaboratively.
Liberal internationalism is characterized by an emphasis on diplomacy, human rights, democracy, and cooperation with other nations through international organizations. While it has faced criticism and challenges over the years, it remains a significant foreign policy approach and worldview in the United States and other liberal democracies.
Isolationism is a foreign policy approach characterized by a nation's desire to minimize its involvement in international affairs and focus on its own domestic priorities and interests. Isolationist policies typically involve a reluctance to engage in international alliances, conflicts, or foreign interventions. Instead, isolationist countries seek to maintain a degree of autonomy and independence from global affairs. Here are some key features of isolationism:
Avoidance of Alliances: Isolationist nations tend to avoid entering into military or political alliances with other countries. They may perceive alliances as entangling commitments that could draw them into conflicts.
Non-Intervention: Isolationist policies often involve a reluctance to intervene in the internal affairs of other countries, particularly when it comes to military intervention or regime change.
Limited International Engagement: Isolationist nations tend to have limited diplomatic, economic, and military engagement with the international community. They may not actively seek out international cooperation or involvement in global issues.
Emphasis on Domestic Issues: Isolationist countries prioritize their own domestic concerns, such as economic development, social issues, and national security, over involvement in international matters.
Neutrality: Neutrality is a common aspect of isolationism. Isolationist countries often adopt a neutral stance in international conflicts, avoiding taking sides or participating in hostilities.
Limited Foreign Aid: Isolationist nations may provide limited foreign aid or humanitarian assistance to other countries. Their primary focus is on their own citizens' well-being.
Trade Barriers: Isolationist policies may include trade protectionism, such as tariffs and trade barriers, in an attempt to insulate the domestic economy from global economic forces.
Sovereignty: Isolationists often emphasize the importance of national sovereignty and independence, resisting international interference in their internal affairs.
It's important to note that isolationism is not a uniform or fixed approach; it can vary in degree and emphasis from one country or era to another. Isolationism tends to be associated with periods of avoiding international entanglements and conflicts, as well as maintaining a focus on domestic development and stability.
Historically, the United States has experienced periods of isolationism, notably in the 1920s and 1930s, when it pursued a more insular foreign policy approach. The term "America First" was associated with this isolationist sentiment. However, U.S. foreign policy has also seen periods of international engagement and leadership, such as during and after World War II, when it played a central role in creating international organizations like the United Nations and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).
Isolationism can have advantages, such as avoiding unnecessary conflicts, reducing military expenditures, and focusing on domestic priorities. However, it can also have drawbacks, such as limiting a nation's ability to address global challenges, maintain alliances, and shape the international order.
American Government Chapter 17 Quiz
Question 1
1 / 1 pts
In order for a presidential appointment to be finalized, what has to occur?
Congress approves their proposed salary
Correct! Senate approves by majority vote
President secures a majority vote in the house
President formally appoints
Question 2
1 / 1 pts
What is the two presidencies thesis?
Correct! An argument that the domestic and international role of the presidencies are distinct
An argument that the president and vice president function together
An argument that the president acts as legislator and policy enforcer
An argument that the state and federal presidencies are distinct
Question 3
1 / 1 pts
What is used when foreign relations breakdown?
Soft power
Correct! War
Hard power
Diplomacy
Question 4
1 / 1 pts
What is the “guns versus butter” debate?
Tension between the arms segment and food segment of the domestic economy
A strategy of using guns to intimidate foreign nations and promoting independence with basic needs goods
A strategy in which aid is invested in the military and produce segments of foreign nations to promote positive relationships
Correct! Tension between building up military and building domestic infrastructure
Question 5
1 / 1 pts
Foreign policy is necessarily __________.
domestic
internally focused
protectionist
Correct! externally focused
Question 6
1 / 1 pts
Which of the following is NOT a role of the president in the context of conducting foreign policy?
Correct! Approving operations beyond sixty days in length
Proposing declarations of war
Negotiating sole executive agreements
Proposing agency reauthorizations
Question 7
1 / 1 pts
What is the name of the Senate foreign policy committee?
Senate Foreign Affairs Committee
Correct! Senate Committee on Foreign Relations
Senate Global Affairs Team
Senate Transnational Committee
Question 8
1 / 1 pts
Where did the Tiananmen Square massacre occur?
Seoul
Hong Kong
Taiwan
Correct! Beijing
Question 9
1 / 1 pts
Which belief system suggests that the United States should aggressively use force to promote its values around the world?
Isolationism
Neo-isolationism
Liberal internationalism
Correct! Neoconservatism
Question 10
1 / 1 pts
A strategy in which nations attempt to equalize the individual power of each member of the international community is known as __________.
balance of trade
free trade
protectionism
Correct! balance of power
Question 11
1 / 1 pts
What type of power threatens the use of military action to influence the behavior of another country?
Tactical power
Correct! Hard power
Coercive power
Soft power
Question 12
1 / 1 pts
The foreign policy environment between WWII and the Cold War can be described as __________.
unipolar
semipolar
multipolar
Correct! bipolar
Question 13
1 / 1 pts
The passage of an emergency funding measure is what type of foreign policy input?
Broadly focused foreign policy
Correct! Sharply focused foreign policy
Global foreign policy
Uniquely focused foreign policy
Question 14
1 / 1 pts
Which of the following is NOT an example of a broadly focused policy?
Iran Nuclear Agreement
The War Powers Resolution
North American Free Trade Agreement
Correct! The Iraq War Surge
Question 15
1 / 1 pts
President Kennedy choosing to implement a blockade around Cuba is an example of a __________ focused foreign policy output.
broadly
narrowly
congressionally
Correct! sharply
Question 16
1 / 1 pts
The end of the Cold War led to what effect?
Weakening of executive war powers
Executive domestic policy success rate is now higher than foreign policy success rate
Executive faces less opposition in Congress on foreign policy proposals
Correct! Less of a rally-behind-the-president
Question 17
1 / 1 pts
What does the National Security Act govern?
Correct! The way the government stores and shares information
Creation of a new federal agency
Clarifies what the government may do when collecting information
Military campaigns
Question 18
1 / 1 pts
What does liberal internationalism advocate?
A foreign policy approach where the United States is actively engaged in promoting American ideals
An approach where the United States is actively engaged in domestic affairs
Correct! A foreign policy approach where the United States is actively engaged in foreign affairs
A foreign policy approach where the United States is actively engaged in disrupting nations with different ideologies
Question 19
1 / 1 pts
Between the end of the Revolutionary War and early twentieth century, the United States engaged a(n) __________ strategy.
internationalist
Correct! isolationist
globalist
neoconservative
Question 20
1 / 1 pts
The civil war in Vietnam caused the United States to rethink which foreign policy strategy?
Neoconservatism
Correct! Containment
Isolationism
Protectionism
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