ENG101 English Composition I Chapter 2

Chapter 2: Writing Basics: What Makes a Good Sentence?

Sentence Writing

Imagine delving into a book assigned for school, eager to extract vital details for an upcoming assignment. However, as you immerse yourself in the text, a disconcerting realization sets in – the book lacks essential punctuation. Sentences sprawl disjointedly, devoid of proper paragraphing, forming an indistinct mass of text. The absence of clear organization frustrates and confounds your attempt to glean meaningful information.

This experience serves as a poignant reminder of the significance of clear communication for both students and professionals alike. Whether composing an email or crafting a report, the onus lies on the communicator to articulate thoughts and ideas with precision and clarity. The foundation of this clarity rests on constructing complete sentences. This segment addresses the identification and creation of fundamental sentence structures, equipping you with the tools to sidestep common writing pitfalls and ensure effective communication.

Effectively composed, comprehensive sentences hinge on essential components: a subject, a verb, and a complete idea. The autonomy of a sentence, often referred to as an independent clause, necessitates its ability to stand alone while maintaining coherence. An independent clause constitutes a collection of words that forms a self-sufficient and grammatically sound thought. The ensuing examples exemplify independent clauses, showcasing the standalone potency of well-crafted sentences.

Every complete sentence inherently harbors at least one independent clause. Discerning an independent clause involves isolating it, reading it independently, and scrutinizing its inherent subject and verb.

Subjects

When reading a sentence, your initial focus often turns to identifying the subject—the central element that the sentence revolves around. Typically positioned at the sentence's outset, the subject takes the form of a noun or a pronoun. A noun, encompassing persons, places, things, or ideas, serves as a foundational identifier. Pronouns, such as I, he, she, it, you, they, and we, act as substitutes for nouns. In the ensuing sentences, the subject is emphasized through underlining.

Mily is the project manager for this project. She will give us our assignments.

In the topic of the sentence is Milly. The pronoun She replaces and refers back to Milly.

The biology lab is where we will work. It will be open twenty-four hours a day.

In the first sentence, the subject is a place: biology lab. In the second sentence, the pronoun It substitutes for biology lab as the subject.

The project will run for three weeks. It will have a quick turnaround.

In the first sentence, the subject is a thing: project. In the second sentence, the pronoun It stands in for the project.

In this chapter anytime you see an underlined topic its a subject. Verbs are underlined and Bold. 

Compound Subjects

A sentence gains complexity and depth when it features multiple individuals, locations, or entities as its subjects. This nuanced structure, known as a compound subject, proves invaluable when the intention is to address and explore several subjects concurrently.

Tim and Mary have been working on that design for almost a year. Magazines, Books, and articles are all good resources to use.

Prepositional Phrases

In your readings, you'll frequently encounter sentences featuring more than one noun or pronoun. Within these sentences, you might come across a cluster of words incorporating a preposition alongside a noun or pronoun. Prepositions serve the purpose of linking a noun, pronoun, or verb to another word, providing description or modification. Common prepositions encompass in, on, under, near, by, with, and about. A collection of words initiated by a preposition constitutes a prepositional phrase, commencing with a preposition and offering modification or description to a word. It's important to note that a prepositional phrase, despite its descriptive function, cannot serve as the subject of a sentence. The subsequent examples showcase circled phrases as illustrations of prepositional phrases.

Verbs

After pinpointing the subject in a sentence, the subsequent focal point is the verb, a crucial component of a complete sentence. Typically an action word, a verb conveys the activity performed by the subject. Moreover, a verb can establish a connection between the subject and a descriptive word. When constructing a sentence, you have three categories of verbs at your disposal: action verbs, linking verbs, and helping verbs.

Action Verbs

An action verb, responsible for linking the subject to a specific activity, is aptly named an action verb. It serves to answer the question, "What is the subject doing?" In the sentences that follow, the action verbs are highlighted in italics.

The dog barked at the runner. 

She gave a short speech before we ate.

Linking Verbs

Frequently, a verb plays the role of connecting the subject to a descriptive word. Termed a linking verb, it functions by establishing a link between the subject and an adjectival description. In the sentences below, the linking verbs are highlighted in italics.

The jacket was old and dirty.

The watch seemed broken. 

Distinguishing between action verbs and linking verbs can be challenging, but a key distinction lies in their functions. An action verb signifies that the subject is actively engaged in an activity, while a linking verb serves the purpose of connecting the subject to another word that provides description or modification. It's worth noting that certain verbs can flexibly function as either action verbs or linking verbs.

Action Verb: The girl looked for her hat.

Linking Verb: the girl looked sleepy.

Despite employing the same verb in both sentences, they convey entirely distinct meanings. In the initial sentence, the verb delineates the action of the girl, while in the second sentence, the verb characterizes the girl's appearance.

Helping Verbs

In your writing, you may encounter a third category of verb known as a helping verb. These verbs collaborate with the main verb to articulate a particular mood or tense. Typically derived from the forms of be, do, or have, the word "can" also functions as a helping verb.

The restaurant is known for its variety of dishes.

He does speak up when prompted in class.

We have seen that movie three times.

He can tell when someone walks on his lawn.

(is, does, have, and can are helping verbs and known, speak up, seen, and tell are verbs)

When engaging in the process of writing or editing sentences, maintain a focused awareness of the subject and verb. To stay on course, pose these questions to yourself:

Subject: Whom or what does the sentence revolve around?

Verb: Which word within the sentence denotes an action or establishes a connection to a description?

Sentence Structure, Including Fragments and Run-ons

With a solid understanding of the fundamental components of a complete sentence—namely, a subject and a verb—you can enhance your writing by incorporating other parts of speech. Skillful writers employ a diverse range of sentence structures to add depth and interest to their work. This section explores various sentence structures that empower you to create more intricate and engaging sentences.

Sentence Patterns

To elevate your writing, familiarize yourself with six fundamental subject-verb patterns. Each pattern is exemplified by a sample sentence, allowing you to observe the placement of each sentence component. Pay attention to the varied use of action verbs and linking verbs across these sentence patterns.

Subject–Verb

Consoles (subject) uBzz (verb)

Subject–Linking Verb–Noun

Consoles (subject) are (linking verb) tool (noun)

Subject–Linking Verb–Adjective

Consoles (subject) are (linking verb) expensive (adjective)

Subject–Verb–Adverb

Consoles (subject) calculate (verb) quickly (adverb)

Subject–Verb–Direct Object

When composing a sentence featuring a direct object (DO), ensure that the direct object is the recipient of the action carried out by the verb.

Sam (subject) rides (verb) a scooter (direct object)

Subject–Verb–Indirect Object–Direct Object

In this sentence structure, the indirect object elucidates the recipient of the action. Positioned before the direct object in the sentence, the indirect object, whether a noun or pronoun, specifies to whom or to what the action is directed.

My coworker (subject) gave (verb) me (indirect object) the reports (direct object)

Fragments

The sentences encountered thus far have predominantly comprised independent clauses. Upon reviewing your previous writing assignments, you might discern that some sentences lack completeness. A sentence devoid of either a subject or a verb is termed a fragment. Fragments may contain descriptive elements or convey partial ideas but fall short of expressing a comprehensive thought.

Fragment: Children helping in the garden.

Complete sentence: Children helping in the garden often make a mess.

Rectifying a fragment is a straightforward task—simply incorporate the absent subject or verb. In the given example, the sentence lacked a verb. The inclusion of "often make a mess" completes the sentence structure, rendering it a well-formed subject-verb-noun (S-V-N) construction.

See whether you can identify what is missing in the following fragments.

Fragment: Told him about the broken cup.

Complete sentence: I told him about the broken cup.

Fragment: The store down on Elm Street.

Complete sentence: The store down on Elm Street sells music.

Common Sentence Errors

Fragments commonly arise due to common errors, such as initiating a sentence with a preposition, a dependent word, an infinitive, or a gerund. By adhering to the six basic sentence patterns in your writing, you can effectively steer clear of these pitfalls and eliminate the occurrence of fragments.

When encountering a preposition, ensure that it is an integral part of a sentence featuring both a subject and a verb. If the preposition is detached from a complete sentence, it constitutes a fragment, necessitating correction by integration with another sentence. You can achieve this by appending the prepositional phrase to the end of the sentence. If you opt to place it at the beginning of the other sentence, remember to insert a comma after the prepositional phrase.

Example A

Incorrect: After walking over two miles. John remembered his wallet.

Correct: After walking over two miles, John remembered his wallet.

Correct: John remembered his wallet After after walking over two miles.

Example B

Incorrect: The dog growled at the vacuum cleaner. When it was switched on.

Correct: When the vacuum cleaner was switched on, the dog growled.

Correct: The dog growled at the vacuum cleaner When when it was switched on.

Clauses commencing with a dependent word, such as since, because, without, or unless, share similarities with prepositional phrases. Like prepositional phrases, these clauses can devolve into fragments when divorced from an independent clause that includes both a subject and a verb. To address this issue, you can seamlessly integrate such fragments either at the beginning or end of a sentence. If the fragment is introduced at the sentence's outset, remember to include a comma.

Incorrect: Because we lost power. The entire family overslept.

Correct: Because we lost power, the entire family overslept.

Correct: The entire family overslept Because because we lost power.

Incorrect: He has been seeing a physical therapist. Since his accident.

Correct: Since his accident, he has been seeing a physical therapist.

Correct: He has been seeing a physical therapist Since since his accident.

Upon encountering a word concluding with -ing in a sentence, scrutinize its function—determine if it serves as a verb and look for any accompanying helping verbs. If the word isn't functioning as a verb or lacks a helping verb when in the -ing form, it is employed as a noun. In this context, the -ing verb form serving as a noun is termed a gerund.

Verb: I was (helping verb) working (verb) on homework until midnight.

Noun: Working until midnight makes me tired the next morning.

After determining whether the -ing word functions as a noun or a verb, shift your attention to the entire sentence. Evaluate if the sentence coherently conveys a complete thought. If not, what you're dealing with is a fragment. To remedy this, you'll have to either introduce the missing parts of speech or integrate the fragment with a neighboring sentence..

Incorrect: Taking deep breaths. Sally prepared for her presentation.

Correct: Taking deep breaths, Sally prepared for her presentation.

Correct: Sally prepared for her presentation. She was taking deep breaths.

Incorrect: Congratulating the entire team. Tim raised his glass to toast their success.

Correct: He was congratulating the entire team. Tim raised his glass to toast their success.

Correct: Congratulating the entire team, Tim raised his glass to toast their success.

An additional flaw in sentence construction is a fragment originating with an infinitive. An infinitive is a verb paired with the word "to," such as to run, to write, or to reach. While infinitives inherently function as verbs, they can also serve as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. Correcting a fragment that initiates with an infinitive involves either merging it with another sentence or incorporating the absent parts of speech.

Incorrect: We needed to make three hundred more paper cranes. To reach the one thousand mark.

Correct: We needed to make three hundred more paper cranes to reach the one thousand mark.

Correct: We needed to make three hundred more paper cranes. We wanted to reach the one thousand mark.

Run-on Sentences

Similar to the challenges posed by short, incomplete sentences, lengthy sentences can also present issues. Sentences featuring two or more independent clauses incorrectly combined are referred to as run-on sentences. Such run-ons can manifest as either fused sentences or comma splices.

Fused sentence: A family of foxes lived under our shed young foxes played all over the yard.

Comma splice: We looked outside, the kids were hopping on the trampoline.

The fusion of two complete sentences into one without any punctuation results in a fused sentence. On the other hand, when two complete sentences are connected by a comma, the outcome is a comma splice. Fortunately, both errors are easily rectifiable.

Punctuation

Correcting run-on sentences can be achieved by addressing the punctuation. For instance, introducing a period can remedy the run-on by establishing two distinct sentences.

Run-on: There were no seats left, we had to stand in the back.

Correct: There were no seats left. we We had to stand in the back.

Using a semicolon between the two complete sentences will also correct the error. A semicolon allows you to keep the two closely related ideas together in one sentence. When you punctuate with a semicolon, make sure that both parts of the sentence are independent clauses. For more information on semicolons, see Section 2.4.2 “Capitalize Proper Nouns”.

Run-on: The accident closed both lanes of traffic we waited an hour for the wreckage to be cleared.

Complete sentence: The accident closed both lanes of traffic; we waited an hour for the wreckage to be cleared.

When you use a semicolon to separate two independent clauses, you may wish to add a transition word to show the connection between the two thoughts. After the semicolon, add the transition word and follow it with a comma. For more information on transition words, see Chapter 8 “The Writing Process: How Do I Begin?”.

Run-on: The project was put on hold we didn’t have time to slow down, so we kept working.

Complete sentence: The project was put on hold; however, we didn’t have time to slow down, so we kept working.

Coordinating Conjunctions

Another method to rectify run-on sentences is by incorporating a comma and a coordinating conjunction. The coordinating conjunction serves as a bridge between the two independent clauses, effectively resolving the run-on.

Here are the seven coordinating conjunctions at your disposal: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so. Employ these words judiciously when seeking to connect two independent clauses. The mnemonic device FANBOYS can aid in recalling this set of coordinating conjunctions.

Run-on: The new printer was installed, no one knew how to use it.

Complete sentence: The new printer was installed, but no one knew how to use it.

Dependent Words

Introducing dependent words is an alternative method for linking independent clauses. Similar to coordinating conjunctions, dependent words indicate a relationship between two independent clauses.

Run-on: We took the elevator, the others still got there before us.

Complete sentence: Although we took the elevator, the others got there before us.

Run-on: Cobwebs covered the furniture, the room hadn’t been used in years.

Complete sentence: Cobwebs covered the furniture because the room hadn’t been used in years.

Writing at work

Isabelle's email initiates with two fragments and two run-on sentences containing comma splices. It concludes with another fragment. This composition could potentially have a detrimental impact on Mr. Blankenship or other readers. They may perceive Isabelle's communication skills unfavorably, and at worst, might struggle to comprehend the message. Communications crafted with precise, complete sentences not only exude professionalism but are also more comprehensible. Before pressing the "send" button, it's prudent to thoroughly review your email, ensuring that sentences are complete, not run together, and punctuated correctly.

Exercise

A reader can get lost or lose interest in material that is too dense and rambling. Use what you have learned about run-on sentences to correct the following passages:

The report is due on Wednesday but we’re flying back from Miami that morning. I told the project manager that we would be able to get the report to her later that day she suggested that we come back a day early to get the report done and I told her we had meetings until our flight took off. We emailed our contact who said that they would check with his boss, she said that the project could afford a delay as long as they wouldn’t have to make any edits or changes to the file our new deadline is next Friday.

Anna tried getting a reservation at the restaurant, but when she called they said that there was a waiting list so she put our names down on the list when the day of our reservation arrived we only had to wait thirty minutes because a table opened up unexpectedly which was good because we were able to catch a movie after dinner in the time we’d expected to wait to be seated.

Without a doubt, my favorite artist is Leonardo da Vinci, not because of his paintings but because of his fascinating designs, models, and sketches, including plans for scuba gear, a flying machine, and a life-size mechanical lion that actually walked and moved its head. His paintings are beautiful too, especially when you see the computer enhanced versions researchers use a variety of methods to discover and enhance the paintings’ original colors, the result of which are stunningly vibrant and yet delicate displays of the man’s genius.

2.2 Subject-Verb Agreement

In a professional setting, projecting a polished image is paramount. Your attire, be it a suit or another outfit, conveys a message when meeting in person, while your writing serves as your representative in your absence. Grammatical errors, whether in writing or speaking, can leave a detrimental impression on colleagues, clients, and prospective employers. Among the most prevalent errors is subject-verb agreement. A robust grasp of this concept is indispensable for making a positive impression and guaranteeing the clarity of your communicated ideas.

Agreement

Agreement, both in speech and writing, underscores the need for grammatical harmony among words and phrases. Various components of sentences must align, or correspond, in terms of number, person, case, and gender.

Number. All parts must match in singular or plural forms.

Person. All parts must match in first person (I), second person (you), or third person (he, she, it, they) forms.

Case. All parts must match in subjective (I, you, he, she, it, they, we), objective (me, her, him, them, us), or possessive (my, mine, your, yours, his, her, hers, their, theirs, our, ours) forms. For more information on pronoun case agreement, see Section 2.5.1 “Pronoun Agreement”.

Gender. All parts must match in male or female forms.

Subject-verb agreement describes the proper match between subjects and verbs.

Subjects and verbs, being either singular or plural, necessitate agreement in number within a sentence. Specifically, a singular subject aligns with a singular verb form, while a plural subject corresponds with a plural verb form. For further insights into subjects and verbs, refer to Sentence Writing above.

Singular: The cat jumps over the fence.

Plural: The cats jump over the fence.

Regular Verbs

Regular verbs adhere to a consistent pattern. Notably, in the third person singular, regular verbs consistently conclude with -s. Conversely, other forms of regular verbs do not terminate with -s. Take a closer look at the following regular verb forms in the present tense for a more comprehensive understanding.

|               | Singular Form | Plural Form |

|---------------|---------------|-------------|

| First Person  | I live.       | We live.    |

| Second Person | You live.     | You live.   |

| Third Person  | He/She/It lives.| They live.  |

To form the third person singular of regular verbs ending in -sh, -x, -ch, and -s, add -es. Here are examples:

I wish. → He wishes.

I fix. → She fixes.

I watch. → It watches.

I kiss. → He kisses.

Singular: I read every day.

Plural: We read every day.

In the given sentences, the verb form remains unchanged for both the first person singular and the first person plural.

Singular: You stretch before you go to bed.

Plural: You stretch before every game.

In these sentences, the verb form remains consistent for both the second person singular and the second person plural. In the singular form, the pronoun "you" pertains to one person, whereas in the plural form, it refers to a group of people, such as a team.

Singular: My mother runs to work every morning.

In this sentence, the focal point is the subject "mother." Since the sentence exclusively addresses one mother, the subject is singular. Consequently, the verb in this sentence must adopt the third person singular form.

Plural: My friends like the same music as I do.

In this sentence, the subject is "friends." As this subject encompasses more than one person, it is plural. Consequently, the verb in this sentence must take the third person plural form.

To transform many singular subjects into plural, you can often achieve this by adding an -s. However, it's important to note that most regular verbs in the present tense end with an –s in the third person singular, but this doesn't make the verbs plural. Here are examples:

Singular subject, singular verb: The cat races across the yard.

Plural subject, plural verb: The cats race across the yard.

Exercise

On your own sheet of paper, write the correct verb form for each of the following sentences.

I (brush/brushes) my teeth twice a day.

You (wear/wears) the same shoes every time we go out.

He (kick/kicks) the soccer ball into the goal.

She (watch/watches) foreign films.

Catherine (hide/hides) behind the door.

We (want/wants) to have dinner with you.

You (work/works) together to finish the project.

They (need/needs) to score another point to win the game.

It (eat/eats) four times a day.

David (fix/fixes) his own motorcycle.

Irregular Verbs

Verbs don't always conform to a consistent pattern, and those that deviate are termed irregular verbs. Among the most common irregular verbs are be, have, and do. Familiarizing yourself with the forms of these verbs in the present tense is crucial to sidestep errors in subject-verb agreement.

Be

Examine the various forms of the verb "to be" in the present tense:

Singular Form:

First Person: I am

Second Person: You are

Third Person: He/She/It is

Plural Form:

First Person: We are

Second Person: You are

Third Person: They are

Have

Review the diverse forms of the verb "to have" in the present tense:

Singular Form:

First Person: I have

Second Person: You have

Third Person: He/She/It has

Plural Form:

First Person: We have

Second Person: You have

Third Person: They have

Do

Examine the distinct forms of the verb "to do" in the present tense:

Singular Form:

First Person: I do

Second Person: You do

Third Person: He/She/It does

Plural Form:

First Person: We do

Second Person: You do

Third Person: They do

Exercise

Complete the following sentences by writing the correct present tense form of be, have, or do. Use your own sheet of paper to complete this exercise.

1. I ________ sure that you will succeed.
2. They ________ front-row tickets to the show.
3. He ________ a great Elvis impersonation.
4. We ________ so excited to meet you in person!
5. She ________ a fever and a sore throat.
6. You ________ not know what you are talking about.
7. You ________ all going to pass this class.
8. She ________ not going to like that.
9. It ________ appear to be the right size.
10. They ________ ready to take this job seriously.

Errors in Subject-Verb Agreement

Subject-verb agreement errors can manifest in various scenarios:

When a sentence features a compound subject.

When the subject is detached from the verb in the sentence.

When the subject is an indefinite pronoun, like anyone or everyone.

When the subject is a collective noun, such as team or organization.

When the subject appears after the verb.

Understanding the origins of these common errors in subject-verb agreement is crucial for steering clear of them in your writing. This section provides a more in-depth exploration of subject-verb agreement errors.

Compound Subjects

A compound subject arises when two or more nouns are connected by coordinating conjunctions such as and, or, or nor. This compound subject may consist of singular subjects, plural subjects, or a mix of both.

When combined with "and," compound subjects necessitate a plural verb form.

Compound subjects joined by "and" require a plural verb form

Two singular subjects: Alice and Mike ride their bikes to the beach.

Two plural subjects: The girls and the boys ride their bikes to the beach.

Singular and plural subjects: Alice and the boys ride their bikes to the beach.

When dealing with compound subjects connected by "or" and "nor," a distinct rule applies. The verb must align with the subject that is closest to it.

Two singular subjects: Neither Eliza nor Riana wants to eat at that restaurant.

Two plural subjects: Neither the kids nor the adults want to eat at that restaurant.

Singular and plural subjects: Neither Eliza nor the kids want to eat at that restaurant.

Plural and singular subjects: Neither the kids nor Eliza wants to eat at that restaurant.

Two singular subjects: Either you or James takes the furniture out of the garage.

Two plural subjects: Either you or the twins take the furniture out of the garage.

Singular and plural subjects: Either James or the twins take the furniture out of the garage.

Plural and singular subjects: Either the twins or James takes the furniture out of the garage.

If you can replace the compound subject with the word "they," the sentence should adopt the third person plural verb form.

Separation of Subjects and Verbs

While reading or writing, encountering a sentence with a phrase or clause that separates the subject from the verb is not uncommon. Frequently, prepositional phrases or dependent clauses contribute additional information to the sentence and interpose between the subject and the verb. Nevertheless, it remains imperative for the subject and the verb to maintain agreement.

If you encounter difficulty in pinpointing the subject and verb, consider crossing out or disregarding phrases and clauses initiated by prepositions or dependent words. Notably, the subject of a sentence is never located within a prepositional phrase or dependent clause.

Here's an example illustrating a subject and verb separated by a prepositional phrase:

The students with the best grades win the academic awards.

The puppy under the table is my favorite.

The ensuing example illustrates a subject and verb separated by a dependent clause:

The car that I bought has power steering and a sunroof.

The representatives who are courteous sell the most tickets.

Indefinite Pronouns

Indefinite pronouns refer to an unspecified person, thing, or quantity. When an indefinite pronoun functions as the subject of a sentence, it typically pairs with a singular verb form.

However, exceptions exist. Certain indefinite pronouns may necessitate a plural verb form. To discern whether a singular or plural verb is appropriate with an indefinite pronoun, evaluate the noun that the pronoun represents. If the noun is plural, opt for a plural verb with the indefinite pronoun. Refer to the list below for a comprehensive set of common indefinite pronouns and their corresponding verb forms.

Indefinite Pronouns That Always Take a Singular Verb:

anybody, anyone, anything

each 

everybody, everyone, everything

much 

many

nobody, no one, nothing

somebody, someone, something

Indefinite Pronouns That Can Take a Singular or Plural Verb:

All

Any

None

Some

Singular: Everybody in the kitchen sings along when that song comes on the radio.

The indefinite pronoun "everybody" adopts a singular verb form because it refers to a collective group engaging in the same action as a unified entity.

Plural: All the people in the kitchen sing along when that song comes on the radio.

The indefinite pronoun "all" adopts a plural verb form because it correlates with the plural noun "people." Given that "people" is plural, "all" is also considered plural in this context.

Singular: All the cake is on the floor.

In this sentence, the indefinite pronoun "all" takes a singular verb form because it pertains to the singular noun "cake." As "cake" is singular, "all" is treated as singular in this instance.

Collective Nouns

A collective noun designates more than one person, place, or thing but treats them as a singular unit. Due to this singular treatment, collective nouns are considered singular and demand a singular verb. Commonly used collective nouns include group, team, army, flock, family, and class.

Singular: The class is going on a field trip.

In this sentence, "class" serves as a collective noun. Despite comprising numerous students, the class is treated as a singular entity, necessitating the use of a singular verb form.

The Subject Follows the Verb

In certain sentences, you may find the subject positioned after the verb rather than preceding it. In such cases, the subject of the sentence might not be in the anticipated location. Ensuring accurate subject-verb agreement requires the precise identification of both the subject and the verb.

Here or There

Sentences commencing with "here" or "there" often feature a structure where the subject follows the verb.

Here is my wallet!

There are thirty dolphins in the water.

If you encounter difficulty discerning the subject and the verb in sentences that commence with "here" or "there," reversing the order of the sentence, so the subject comes first, may aid in clarification.

My wallet is here!

Thirty dolphins are in the water.

Questions

In interrogative sentences, question words (who, what, where, when, why, or how) typically take the initial position, followed by the verb and then the subject.

Who are the people you are related to?

When am I going to go to the grocery store?

If you encounter difficulty in pinpointing the subject and the verb in questions, attempting to answer the question being asked may assist in identifying these elements.

When am I going to the grocery store? I am going to the grocery store tonight!

Exercise

Correct the errors in subject-verb agreement in the following paragraph. Copy the paragraph on a piece of notebook paper and make corrections.

Dear Hiring Manager,

I feels that I am the ideal candidate for the receptionist position at your company. I has three years of experience as a receptionist in a company that is similar to yours. My phone skills and written communication is excellent. These skills, and others that I have learned on the job, helps me understand that every person in a company helps make the business a success. At my current job, the team always say that I am very helpful. Everyone appreciate when I go the extra mile to get the job done right. My current employer and coworkers feels that I am an asset to the team. I is efficient and organized. Is there any other details about me that you would like to know? If so, please contact me. Here are my résumé. You can reach me by email or phone. I looks forward to speaking with you in person.

Thanks,

Felicia Fellini

Writing At work

Put yourself in the shoes of a potential client who comes across this ad online. Would you consider calling Terra Services to manage your next project? The likelihood is low. Errors in subject-verb agreement can have a detrimental impact on a company's business. Diligently attending to grammatical details guarantees professionalism, which discerning clients will acknowledge and appreciate.

Writing Application

Use your knowledge of subject-verb agreement to write one of the following:

An advertisement for a potential company

A memo to all employees of a particular company

A cover letter describing your qualifications to a potential employer

Be sure to include at least the following:

One collective noun

One irregular verb

One question

Example: 

Memo to All Employees

Subject: Team Building Retreat

Dear Team,

I hope this message finds you well. As part of our ongoing commitment to fostering a collaborative and dynamic work environment, we are excited to announce a team-building retreat scheduled for next month. The retreat aims to strengthen our collective spirit, enhance communication, and align our goals for the upcoming year.

The retreat will take place at the picturesque Pine Valley Resort, nestled in the heart of nature. It promises a perfect blend of relaxation and strategic planning. We believe that by investing time in team building, we can unlock our full potential and achieve even greater success as a unit.

Agenda Highlights:

Collective brainstorming session: We will leverage the diverse talents within our team to generate innovative ideas for our upcoming projects.

Irregular team challenges: Engage in activities designed to challenge our problem-solving skills and promote a sense of camaraderie.

Evening networking event: An informal gathering to connect with colleagues outside of the usual work setting.

To ensure everyone's participation, we encourage you to share any dietary restrictions or special considerations as soon as possible.

Question: What specific team-building activities would you like to see included in the retreat? Your input is invaluable in tailoring the experience to meet the preferences and expectations of our unique team.

Your enthusiasm and active participation will undoubtedly contribute to the success of this retreat. We look forward to strengthening our bonds and achieving new milestones together.

Best regards,

[Your Name]

[Your Position]

[Company Name]

2.3 Verb Tense

Ensuring clarity about the timeframe of your experiences is crucial when delivering an oral presentation, particularly when recounting past events. The use of accurate verb tenses becomes pivotal in avoiding any ambiguity that might lead to misinterpretation.

Precision in verb tense is paramount. Failure to adhere to the appropriate tense may result in your audience forming an unfavorable opinion. Tense-related errors can obscure the temporal context, leaving your listeners with a distorted understanding of your narrative.

Thus, to articulate your summer experiences effectively, employ the correct past tense consistently. This linguistic precision will not only enhance the clarity of your message but also contribute to a more favorable reception from your audience.

Regular Verbs

Verbs serve as linguistic tools, conveying actions or states of being across different temporal dimensions—past, present, or future—through the use of tenses. Regular verbs adhere to specific patterns when transitioning from the present to the past tense. A straightforward example involves adding -ed or -d to the end of a verb to form the past tense or past-participle verb form. Familiarity with this basic pattern is instrumental in preventing errors and promoting grammatical accuracy.

The choice of verb tense in a sentence precisely pinpoints the timing of the depicted action. These tenses manifest in various forms, signaling:

An action or state of being in the present,

An action or state of being in the past,

An action or state of being in the future.

Additionally, helping verbs, such as "be" and "have," play a crucial role in constructing verb tenses, extending their influence even to the future tense. Understanding these dynamics not only enhances your command of language but also ensures clarity and precision in expressing the temporal nuances of your narratives.

Present Tense: Tim walks to the store. (Singular subject)

Present Tense: Sia and Kim walk to the store. (Plural subject)

Past Tense: Yesterday, they walked to the store to buy some bread. (Singular subject)

Exercise

Complete the following sentences by selecting the correct form of the verb in simple present, simple past, or simple future tenses. Write the corrected sentence on your own sheet of paper.

The Dust Bowl (is, was, will be) a name given to a period of very destructive dust storms that occurred in the United States during the 1930s.

Historians today (consider, considered, will consider) The Dust Bowl to be one of the worst weather of events in American history.

The Dust Bowl mostly (affects, affected, will affect) the states of Kansas, Colorado, Oklahoma, Texas, and New Mexico.

Dust storms (continue, continued, will continue) to occur in these dry regions, but not to the devastating degree of the 1930s.

The dust storms during The Dust Bowl (cause, caused, will cause) irreparable damage to farms and the environment for a period of several years.

When early settlers (move, moved, will move) into this area, they (remove, removed, will remove) the natural prairie grasses in order to plant crops and graze their cattle.

They did not (realize, realized, will realize) that the grasses kept the soil in place.

There (is, was, will be) also a severe drought that (affects, affected, will affect) the region.

The worst dust storm (happens, happened, will happen) on April 14, 1935, a day called Black Sunday.

The Dust Bowl era finally came to end in 1939 when the rains (arrive, arrived, will arrive).

Dust storms (continue, continued, will continue) to affect the region, but hopefully they will not be as destructive as the storms of the 1930s.

Irregular Verbs

The past tense of irregular verbs deviates from the predictable patterns observed in regular verbs. Instead of adhering to the standard -ed or -d suffix, irregular verbs introduce unique transformations. To navigate these linguistic anomalies effectively, refer to Table found below, titled "Irregular Verbs," a comprehensive compilation of the most frequently encountered irregular verbs. This resource serves as a valuable guide, offering insights into the distinctive alterations each irregular verb undergoes when shifting into the past tense. By consulting this table, you gain a strategic understanding of irregular verb conjugations, enhancing your proficiency in using them accurately and confidently in written and spoken communication.

Mastering irregular verbs is most effectively achieved through memorization. Collaborate with a classmate to enhance your learning experience by creating a set of flashcards dedicated to irregular verbs. These flashcards should feature the infinitive form on one side and the corresponding past tense on the other. Engage in regular self-testing sessions, challenging each other to recall the past tense forms accurately. Consistent practice with flashcards facilitates the internalization of irregular verb conjugations, ultimately leading to a more confident and proficient command of these linguistic nuances.

 Irregular Verbs Table

Here we consider using irregular verbs.

Present Tense: Laura keeps all her letters.

Past Tense: Laura kept all her letters.

Future Tense: Laura will keep all her letters.

Exercise 

Complete the following sentences by selecting the correct form of the irregular verb in simple present, simple past, or simple future tense. Copy the corrected sentence onto your own sheet of paper.

Marina finally (forgived, forgave, will forgive) her sister for snooping around her room.

The house (shook, shaked, shakes) as the airplane rumbled overhead.

I (buyed, bought, buy) several items of clothing at the thrift store on Wednesday.

She (put, putted, puts) the lotion in her shopping basket and proceeded to the checkout line.

The prized goose (layed, laid, lay) several golden eggs last night.

Mr. Batista (teached, taught, taughted) the class how to use correct punctuation.

I (drink, drank, will drink) several glasses of sparkling cider instead of champagne on New Year’s Eve next year.

Although Hector (growed, grew, grows) three inches in one year, we still called him “Little Hector.”

Yesterday our tour guide (lead, led, will lead) us through the maze of people in Times Square.

The rock band (burst, bursted, bursts) onto the music scene with their catchy songs.

Exercise 2

On your own sheet of paper, write a sentence using the correct form of the verb tense shown below.

Throw (past)

Paint (simple present)

Smile (future)

Tell (past)

Share (simple present)

Maintaining Consistent Verb Tense

Maintaining consistent verb tense is crucial for effective writing. It involves using the same verb tense throughout a sentence or paragraph. When writing and revising, it is essential to adhere to a consistent tense and refrain from unnecessary shifts from one tense to another unless a valid reason justifies such a change. In the box below, observe the distinction between a sentence with uniform tense and one marked by inconsistent tense.

Inconsistent tense:

The crowd starts cheering as Melina approached the finish line.

Consistent tense:

The crowd started cheering as Melina approached the finish line.

Consistent tense:

The crowd starts cheering as Melina approaches the finish line.

There are instances where effective communication necessitates the use of different tenses. Consider the example below:

When I was a teenager, I wanted to be a firefighter, but not I am studying computer science.

A tense shift is warranted when the time frame for each action or state varies.

Exercise

Edit the following paragraph by correcting the inconsistent verb tense. Copy the corrected paragraph onto your own sheet of paper.

In the Middle Ages, most people lived in villages and work as agricultural laborers, or peasants. Every village has a “lord,” and the peasants worked on his land. Much of what they produce go to the lord and his family. What little food was leftover goes to support the peasants’ families. In return for their labor, the lord offers them protection. A peasant’s day usually began before sunrise and involves long hours of backbreaking work, which includes plowing the land, planting seeds, and cutting crops for harvesting. The working life of a peasant in the Middle Ages is usually demanding and exhausting.

Writing at Work

Read the following work email excerpt:

In an email, the presence of inconsistent tense is likely to divert the reader's attention from the intended message. While your colleagues may not explicitly point out or correct verb tense issues, it's crucial to recognize that such errors can subtly contribute to a negative impact in the workplace.

2.4 Capitalization

In the realm of text messages, casual emails, and instant messaging, the conventions of capitalization are often overlooked. In these contexts, it might appear superfluous to capitalize. Yet, in more formal modes of communication, understanding and adhering to the fundamental rules of capitalization not only convey a sense of meticulous word choice but also reflect a genuine concern for the clarity and importance of the ideas being conveyed.

Capitalize the First Word of a Sentence

Incorrect: the museum has a new butterfly exhibit.

Correct: The museum has a new butterfly exhibit.

Incorrect: cooking can be therapeutic.

Correct: Cooking can be therapeutic.

Capitalize Proper Nouns

Proper nouns, encompassing the names of distinct individuals, places, objects, streets, buildings, events, or titles, consistently merit capitalization.

Incorrect: He grew up in harlem, new york.

Correct: He grew up in Harlem, New York.

Incorrect: The sears tower in chicago has a new name.

Correct: The Sears Tower in Chicago has a new name.

Capitalize nationalities, races, languages, and religions without exception. For instance, American, African American, Hispanic, Catholic, Protestant, Jewish, Muslim, Hindu, Buddhist, and so forth, should always be written with an initial capital letter.

Avoid capitalizing nouns for people, places, things, streets, buildings, events, and titles when they are used in a general or common manner. Refer to the chart below for a clear distinction between proper nouns and common nouns.

Capitalize Days of the Week, Months of the Year, and Holidays

Incorrect: On wednesday, I will be traveling to Austin for a music festival.

Correct: On Wednesday, I will be traveling to Austin for a music festival.

Incorrect: The fourth of july is my favorite holiday.

Correct: The Fourth of July is my favorite holiday.

Capitalize Titles

Incorrect: The play, fences, by August Wilson is one of my favorites.

Correct: The play, Fences, by August Wilson is one of my favorites.

Incorrect: The president of the united states will be speaking at my university.

Correct: The President of the United States will be speaking at my university.

Words related to computers, like "Internet" and "World Wide Web," typically carry capitalization. However, "e-mail" and "online" are consistently kept in lowercase.

Exercise

Edit the following sentences by correcting the capitalization of the titles or names.

The prince of england enjoys playing polo.

“Ode to a nightingale” is a sad poem.

My sister loves to read magazines such as the new yorker.

The house on Mango street is an excellent novel written by Sandra Cisneros.

My physician, dr. alvarez, always makes me feel comfortable in her office.

Exercise 

Edit the following paragraphs by correcting the capitalization.

david grann’s the lost City of Z mimics the snake-like winding of the amazon River. The three distinct Stories that are introduced are like twists in the River. First, the Author describes his own journey to the amazon in the present day, which is contrasted by an account of percy fawcett’s voyage in 1925 and a depiction of James Lynch’s expedition in 1996. Where does the river lead these explorers? the answer is one that both the Author and the reader are hungry to discover.

The first lines of the preface pull the reader in immediately because we know the author, david grann, is lost in the amazon. It is a compelling beginning not only because it’s thrilling but also because this is a true account of grann’s experience. grann has dropped the reader smack in the middle of his conflict by admitting the recklessness of his decision to come to this place. the suspense is further perpetuated by his unnerving observation that he always considered himself A Neutral Witness, never getting personally involved in his stories, a notion that is swiftly contradicted in the opening pages, as the reader can clearly perceive that he is in a dire predicament—and frighteningly involved.

Writing at Work

Did you know that using all capital letters to convey a message can give the impression of shouting? Moreover, text in all capital letters is more challenging to read and may even irritate the reader. To steer clear of unintentional "shouting" or annoyance, adhere to the rules of capitalization and explore alternative methods to emphasize your point.

2.5 Pronouns

The absence of pronouns would render all forms of writing considerably tedious to read. Imagine encountering sentences like "Bob said that Bob was tired" or "Christina told the class that Christina received an A" repeatedly – it would quickly lead to frustration. Pronouns play a crucial role in alleviating this monotony, allowing writers to circumvent constant repetition. Understanding the mechanics of pronouns is a key element of achieving clarity and conciseness in writing.

Pronoun Agreement

A pronoun serves as a replacement for, or reference to, a noun or another pronoun. The specific term or terms to which a pronoun refers are known as the antecedent of the pronoun.

1. Lanny complained that she was exhausted.

She refers to Lanny.

Lanny is the antecedent of she.

2. Jerry left the party early, so I did not see him until Monday at work.

Him refers to Jerry.

Jerry is the antecedent of him.

3. Rina and Rose have been best friends ever since they were freshman in high school.

They refers to Rina and Rose.

Rina and Rose is the antecedent of they.

Pronoun agreement errors arise when there is a mismatch or lack of agreement between the pronoun and its antecedent. Various types of pronoun agreement issues can occur.

Agreement in Number

When a pronoun replaces or refers to a singular noun, it must itself be singular.

Incorrect: If a student (sing.) wants to return a book to the bookstore, they (plur.) must have a receipt.

Correct: If a student (sing.) wants to return a book to the bookstore, he or she (sing.) must have a receipt.

*If it seems too wordy to use he or she, change the antecedent to a plural noun.

Correct: If students (plur.) want to return a book to the bookstore, they (plur.) must have a receipt.

Agreement in Person

Consistency in the use of a single person helps minimize confusion for your reader.

Incorrect: When a person (3rd) goes to a restaurant, you (2nd) should leave a tip.

Correct: When a person (3rd) goes to a restaurant, he or she (3rd) should leave a tip.

Correct: When we (1st) go to a restaurant, I should (1st) should leave a tip.

Exercise

Edit the following paragraph by correcting pronoun agreement errors in number and person.

Over spring break I visited my older cousin, Diana, and they took me to a butterfly exhibit at a museum. Diana and I have been close ever since she was young. Our mothers are twin sisters, and she is inseparable! Diana knows how much I love butterflies, so it was their special present to me. I have a soft spot for caterpillars too. I love them because something about the way it transforms is so interesting to me. One summer my grandmother gave me a butterfly growing kit, and you got to see the entire life cycle of five Painted Lady butterflies. I even got to set it free. So when my cousin said they wanted to take me to the butterfly exhibit, I was really excited!

Indefinite Pronouns and Agreement

Indefinite pronouns, which lack reference to a specific person or thing, typically maintain a singular form. It's essential to remember that a pronoun referring to an indefinite singular pronoun should also be singular. Here are some commonly used indefinite pronouns:

Indefinite pronoun agreement

Incorrect: Everyone (sing.) should do what they (plur.) can to help.

Correct: Everyone (sing.) should do what he or she (sing.) can to help.

Incorrect: Someone (sing.) left their (plur.) backpack in the library.

Correct: Someone (sing.) left his or her (sing.) backpack in the library.

Collective Nouns

Collective nouns, although implying more than one person, are generally treated as singular. Review the following examples of collective nouns:

Collective noun agreement

Incorrect: Lara’s company (sing.) will have their (plur.) annual picnic next week.

Correct: Lara’s company (sing.) will have its (sing.) annual picnic next week.

Exercise

Complete the following sentences by selecting the correct pronoun. Copy the completed sentence onto your own sheet of paper. Then circle the noun the pronoun replaces.

In the current economy, nobody wants to waste ________ money on frivolous things.

If anybody chooses to go to medical school, ________ must be prepared to work long hours.

The plumbing crew did ________ best to repair the broken pipes before the next ice storm.

If someone is rude to you, try giving ________ a smile in return.

My family has ________ faults, but I still love them no matter what.

The school of education plans to train ________ students to be literacy tutors.

The commencement speaker said that each student has a responsibility toward ________.

My mother’s singing group has ________ rehearsals on Thursday evenings.

No one should suffer ________ pains alone.

I thought the flock of birds lost ________ way in the storm.

Subject and Object Pronouns

Subject pronouns serve as the subjects in a sentence, while object pronouns function either as the object of a verb or the object of a preposition.

The following sentences show pronouns as subjects:

She loves the Blue Ridge Mountains in the fall.

Every summer, they picked up litter from national parks.

The following sentences show pronouns as objects:

Marie leaned over and kissed him.

Jane moved it to the corner.

It's important to note that a pronoun can also serve as the object of a preposition. In the sentences:

"Near them, the children played."

"My mother stood between us."

The pronouns "us" and "them" function as objects of the prepositions "near" and "between," answering the questions "near whom?" and "between whom?" respectively.

Compound subject pronouns consist of two or more pronouns connected by a conjunction or a preposition, collectively functioning as the subject of the sentence. The sentences below illustrate pronouns with compound subjects:

Incorrect: Me and Harriet visited the Grand Canyon last summer.

Correct: Harriet and I visited the Grand Canyon last summer.

Correct: Jenna accompanied Harriet and me on our trip.

It's crucial to recognize that object pronouns should never be employed in the subject position. A helpful way to remember this rule is to eliminate the other subject in a compound subject, retain only the pronoun, and assess whether the sentence remains coherent. For instance, "Me visited the Grand Canyon last summer" immediately sounds incorrect.

Compound object pronouns consist of two or more pronouns connected by a conjunction or a preposition, collectively serving as the object of the sentence.

Incorrect: I have a good feeling about Janice and I.

Correct: I have a good feeling about Janice and me.

The correct usage is "Janice and me" rather than "me and Janice." Remember, it is considered more polite to refer to yourself last.

Exercise

Revise the following sentences in which the subject and object pronouns are used incorrectly. Copy the revised sentence onto your own sheet of paper. Write a C for each sentence that is correct.

Meera and me enjoy doing yoga together on Sundays.

________________________________________________________________

She and him have decided to sell their house.

________________________________________________________________

Between you and I, I do not think Jeffrey will win the election.

________________________________________________________________

Us and our friends have game night the first Thursday of every month.

________________________________________________________________

They and I met while on vacation in Mexico.

________________________________________________________________

Napping on the beach never gets boring for Alice and I.

________________________________________________________________

New Year’s Eve is not a good time for she and I to have a serious talk.

________________________________________________________________

You exercise much more often than me.

________________________________________________________________

I am going to the comedy club with Yolanda and she.

________________________________________________________________

The cooking instructor taught her and me a lot.

________________________________________________________________

Who versus Whom

"Who" or "whoever" always serves as the subject of a verb. Opt for "who" or "whoever" when the pronoun is the one performing the action indicated by the verb.

Who won the marathon last Tuesday?

I wonder who came up with that terrible idea!

Conversely, "whom" and "whomever" function as objects. Employ these when the pronoun is not performing an action but is the direct object of a verb or the object of a preposition.

Whom did Frank marry the third time? (direct object of verb)

From whom did you buy that old record player? (object of preposition)

If you find it challenging to determine when to use "who" and "whom," try this helpful trick. Take the sentence:

"Who/Whom do I consider my best friend?"

Rephrase the sentence in your mind, using either "he" or "him" in place of "who" or "whom."

"I consider him my best friend."

"I consider he my best friend."

Which sentence sounds more natural? The first one, of course. So, the trick is, if you can use "him," you should use "whom."

Exercise

Complete the following sentences by adding who or whom. Copy the completed sentence onto your own sheet of paper.

________ hit the home run?

I remember ________ won the Academy Award for Best Actor last year.

To ________ is the letter addressed?

I have no idea ________ left the iron on, but I am going to find out.

________ are you going to recommend for the internship?

With ________ are you going to Hawaii?

No one knew ________ the famous actor was.

________ in the office knows how to fix the copy machine?

From ________ did you get the concert tickets?

No one knew ________ ate the cake mom was saving.

2.6 Adjectives and Adverbs

Adjectives and adverbs are descriptive elements that breathe life into your writing.

Adjectives and Adverbs

An adjective serves to describe a noun or a pronoun, often addressing questions like which one, what kind, or how many.

The green sweater belongs to Iris.

She looks beautiful.

In sentence 1, the adjective "green" describes the noun "sweater."

In sentence 2, the adjective "beautiful" describes the pronoun "she."

Conversely, an adverb describes a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. Adverbs frequently end in -ly and answer questions such as how, to what extent, why, when, and where.

Bertrand sings horribly.

My sociology instructor is extremely wise.

He threw the ball very accurately.

In sentence 3, "horribly" describes the verb "sings." How does Bertrand sing? He sings horribly.

In sentence 4, "extremely" describes the adjective "wise." How wise is the instructor? Extremely wise.

In sentence 5, "very" describes the adverb "accurately." How accurately did he throw the ball? Very accurately.

Exercise

Complete the following sentences by adding the correct adjective or adverb from the list in the previous section. Identify the word as an adjective or an adverb (Adj, Adv).

Frederick ________ choked on the piece of chicken when he saw Margaret walk through the door.

His ________ eyes looked at everyone and everything as if they were specimens in a biology lab.

Despite her pessimistic views on life, Lauren believes that most people have ________ hearts.

Although Stefan took the criticism ________, he remained calm.

The child developed a ________ imagination because he read a lot of books.

Madeleine spoke ________ while she was visiting her grandmother in the hospital.

Hector’s most ________ possession was his father’s bass guitar from the 1970s.

My definition of a ________ afternoon is walking to the park on a beautiful day, spreading out my blanket, and losing myself in a good book.

She ________ eyed her new coworker and wondered if he was single.

At the party, Denise ________ devoured two pieces of pepperoni pizza and a several slices of ripe watermelon.

Comparative versus Superlative

Comparative adjectives and adverbs are employed for comparing two people or things.

Jorge is thin.

Steven is thinner than Jorge.

In sentence 1, Jorge is described with the adjective "thin."

Sentence 2 compares Jorge to Steven, stating that Steven is thinner. "Thinner" is the comparative form of "thin."

To form comparatives:

If the adjective or adverb is a one-syllable word, add -er to it. For example, big, fast, and short become bigger, faster, and shorter in the comparative form.

If the adjective or adverb is a word of two or more syllables, place the word "more" in front of it. For example, happily, comfortable, and jealous become more happily, more comfortable, and more jealous in the comparative.

Superlative adjectives and adverbs, on the other hand, are used for comparing more than two people or things.

Jackie is the loudest cheerleader on the squad.

Kenyatta was voted the most confident student by her graduating class.

In sentence 1, Jackie isn't just louder than one other person; she is the loudest of all the cheerleaders on the squad.

In sentence 2, Kenyatta was voted the most confident student among all the students in her class.

To form superlatives, you have two options:

For a one-syllable adjective or adverb, add -est to create the superlative. For instance, big, fast, and short become biggest, fastest, and shortest in the superlative form.

If dealing with an adjective or adverb with two or more syllables, use "most" before it. For example, happily, comfortable, and jealous become most happily, most comfortable, and most jealous in the superlative form.

Bear in mind the following exception: if a two-syllable word ends in -y, change the -y to -i and add -est to form the superlative. For instance, "happy" becomes "happiest" in the superlative form, and "healthy" transforms into "healthiest."

Exercise

Edit the following paragraph by correcting the errors in comparative and superlative adjectives.

Our argument started on the most sunny afternoon that I have ever experienced. Max and I were sitting on my front stoop when I started it. I told him that my dog, Jacko, was more smart than his dog, Merlin. I could not help myself. Merlin never came when he was called, and he chased his tail and barked at rocks. I told Max that Merlin was the most dumbest dog on the block. I guess I was angrier about a bad grade that I received, so I decided to pick on poor little Merlin. Even though Max insulted Jacko too, I felt I had been more mean. The next day I apologized to Max and brought Merlin some of Jacko’s treats. When Merlin placed his paw on my knee and licked my hand, I was the most sorry person on the block.

Collaboration

Share and compare your answers with a classmate.

Irregular Words: Good, Well, Bad, and Badly

The words "good," "well," "bad," and "badly" are frequently misused. Refer to the following chart to grasp the correct usage of these words and their comparative and superlative forms:

Good versus Well

"Good" always functions as an adjective, describing a noun or pronoun. The second sentence is accurate because "well" is an adverb, indicating how something is done.

Incorrect: Calia felt that she had never done so good on a test.

Correct: Calia felt that she had never done so well on a test.

"Well" always serves as an adverb, describing a verb, adverb, or adjective. The second sentence is accurate because "good" is an adjective describing the noun "score."

Incorrect: Calia’s team received a well score.

Correct: Calia’s team received a good score.

Bad versus Badly

"Bad" always functions as an adjective. The second sentence is correct because "badly" is an adverb that describes how the speaker did on the test.

Incorrect: I did bad on my accounting test because I didn’t study.

Correct: I did badly on my accounting test because I didn’t study.

"Badly" always serves as an adverb. The second sentence is correct because "bad" is an adjective describing the noun "thunderstorm."

Incorrect: The coming thunderstorm looked badly.

Correct: The coming thunderstorm looked bad.

Better and Worse

Here are examples illustrating the use of "better" and "worse":

Tyra likes sprinting better than long distance running.

The traffic is worse in Chicago than in Atlanta.

Best and Worst

Here are examples illustrating the use of "better" and "worse":

Tyra sprints best of all the other competitors.

Peter finished worst of all the runners in the race.

Keep in mind that "better" and "worse" are used to compare two persons or things, while "best" and "worst" are employed when comparing three or more persons or things.

Exercise

Write good, well, bad, or badly to complete each sentence. Copy the completed sentence onto your own sheet of paper.

Donna always felt ________ if she did not see the sun in the morning.

The school board president gave a ________ speech for once.

Although my dog, Comet, is mischievous, he always behaves ________ at the dog park.

I thought my back injury was ________ at first, but it turned out to be minor.

Steve was shaking ________ from the extreme cold.

Apple crisp is a very ________ dessert that can be made using whole grains instead of white flour.

The meeting with my son’s math teacher went very ________.

Juan has a ________ appetite, especially when it comes to dessert.

Magritte thought the guests had a ________ time at the party because most people left early.

She ________ wanted to win the writing contest prize, which included a trip to New York.

Exercise

Write the correct comparative or superlative form of the word in parentheses. Copy the completed sentence onto your own sheet of paper.

This research paper is ________ (good) than my last one.

Tanaya likes country music ________ (well) of all.

My motorcycle rides ________ (bad) than it did last summer.

That is the ________ (bad) joke my father ever told.

The hockey team played ________ (badly) than it did last season.

Tracey plays guitar ________ (well) than she plays the piano.

It will go down as one of the ________ (bad) movies I have ever seen.

The deforestation in the Amazon is ________ (bad) than it was last year.

Movie ticket sales are ________ (good) this year than last.

My husband says mystery novels are the ________ (good) types of books.

2.7 Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers

A modifier is a word, phrase, or clause designed to clarify or describe another word, phrase, or clause. Occasionally, writers misuse modifiers, resulting in peculiar and unintentionally humorous sentences. Two common types of modifier errors are misplaced modifiers and dangling modifiers. When either of these errors occurs, readers may struggle to comprehend the intended meaning, disrupting the smooth flow of the text. A writer's primary objective should always be clear communication, steering clear of confusing or awkward sentence constructions. The good news is that these errors can be rectified with ease.

Misplaced Modifiers

A misplaced modifier occurs when a word or phrase intended to modify another element in the sentence is positioned too distantly from its target. This misplacement not only disrupts the flow of the sentence but can also lead to unintended and occasionally comical interpretations.

Incorrect: She wore a bicycle helmet on her head that was too large.

Correct: She wore a bicycle helmet that was too large on her head.

In the erroneous sentence, there's a misleading implication that the person's head is oversized, when in fact, the intended reference is to the helmet. The revised version of the sentence elucidates the writer's intended meaning. Consider the following two examples for further clarification:

Incorrect: They bought a kitten for my brother they call Shadow.

Correct: They bought a kitten they call Shadow for my brother.

In the flawed sentence, it appears as though the brother's name is Shadow due to the modifier being too distant from the word it should modify, namely "kitten." The correction brings clarity to the intended meaning, emphasizing that "Shadow" is the cat's name, not the brother's.

Incorrect: The patient was referred to the physician with stomach pains.

Correct: The patient with stomach pains was referred to the physician.

The inaccurate sentence suggests that it is the physician experiencing stomach pains. The intended meaning, however, is that the patient is the one with stomach pains.

Modifiers like "only," "almost," "just," "nearly," and "barely" are frequently misused, leading to confusion in sentences. For instance:

Confusing: Tyler almost found fifty cents under the sofa cushions.

Revised: Tyler found almost fifty cents under the sofa cushions.

The initial formulation creates ambiguity because finding something is typically an absolute action. The revised sentence enhances clarity by clearly expressing that Tyler found nearly fifty cents under the sofa cushions.

Exercise

On a separate sheet of paper, rewrite the following sentences to correct the misplaced modifiers.

The young lady was walking the dog on the telephone.

I heard that there was a robbery on the evening news.

Uncle Louie bought a running stroller for the baby that he called “Speed Racer.”

Rolling down the mountain, the explorer stopped the boulder with his powerful foot.

We are looking for a babysitter for our precious six-year-old who doesn’t drink or smoke and owns a car.

The teacher served cookies to the children wrapped in aluminum foil.

The mysterious woman walked toward the car holding an umbrella.

We returned the wine to the waiter that was sour.

Charlie spotted a stray puppy driving home from work.

I ate nothing but a cold bowl of noodles for dinner.

Dangling Modifiers

A dangling modifier is a word, phrase, or clause that describes something absent from the sentence. In such cases, the modifier "dangles" without a clear target for modification, resulting in a lack of coherence in the sentence.

Incorrect: Riding in the sports car, the world whizzed by rapidly.

Correct: As Jane was riding in the sports car, the world whizzed by rapidly.

In the flawed sentence, the phrase "riding in the sports car" dangles without a clear reference, leaving the reader to ponder who exactly is the one riding in the sports car. It is crucial for the writer to provide this missing information and eliminate any ambiguity.

Incorrect: Walking home at night, the trees looked like spooky aliens.

Correct: As Jonas was walking home at night, the trees looked like spooky aliens.

Correct: The trees looked like spooky aliens as Jonas was walking home at night.

In the misguided sentence, the phrase "walking home at night" dangles without specifying who is undertaking this action. In this case, it is Jonas. It's noteworthy that there are two distinct ways to rectify the dangling modifier in this context.

Incorrect: To win the spelling bee, Luis and Gerard should join our team.

Correct: If we want to win the spelling bee this year, Luis and Gerard should join our team.

In the flawed sentence, the phrase "to win the spelling bee" is left dangling without a clear subject. The intended subject is "We," who desire to win the spelling bee. It is essential to clarify this connection for a more precise and coherent statement.

To swiftly identify a dangling modifier, follow these three steps:

Identify the Modifier:

Look for an -ing modifier or another modifying phrase at the beginning of your sentence.

Example: "Painting for three hours at night, the kitchen was finally finished by Maggie." (In this case, "Painting" is the -ing modifier.)

Underline the First Noun:

Underline the first noun that follows the modifier.

Example: "Painting for three hours at night, the kitchen was finally finished by Maggie."

Check Logical Connection:

Ensure that the modifier and the noun logically go together. If not, you likely have a dangling modifier.

After identifying the dangling modifier, proceed to rewrite the sentence for clarity.

Example: "Painting for three hours at night, Maggie finally finished the kitchen."

Exercise

Rewrite the following the sentences on to your own sheet of paper to correct the dangling modifiers.

Bent over backward, the posture was very challenging.

Making discoveries about new creatures, this is an interesting time to be a biologist.

Walking in the dark, the picture fell off the wall.

Playing a guitar in the bedroom, the cat was seen under the bed.

Packing for a trip, a cockroach scurried down the hallway.

While looking in the mirror, the towel swayed in the breeze.

While driving to the veterinarian’s office, the dog nervously whined.

The priceless painting drew large crowds when walking into the museum.

Piled up next to the bookshelf, I chose a romance novel.

Chewing furiously, the gum fell out of my mouth.

Rewrite the following paragraph correcting all the misplaced and dangling modifiers.

I bought a fresh loaf of bread for my sandwich shopping in the grocery store. Wanting to make a delicious sandwich, the mayonnaise was thickly spread. Placing the cold cuts on the bread, the lettuce was placed on top. I cut the sandwich in half with a knife turning on the radio. Biting into the sandwich, my favorite song blared loudly in my ears. Humming and chewing, my sandwich went down smoothly. Smiling, my sandwich will be made again, but next time I will add cheese.

Collaboration

Please share with a classmate and compare your answers.

What Makes a Good Essay?

Navigating through your academic journey and life, assessments of your writing will be commonplace. Frequently, writing is labeled as either "good" or "bad," albeit these are rudimentary classifications. The pivotal question then arises: What constitutes good writing? This inquiry holds significance in the pursuit of becoming a proficient writer. While we will delve into this inquiry over the semester, here's a succinct overview of the essential elements for a well-crafted essay.

Content:

Content embodies the substance of your writing — encompassing ideas, facts, information, and emotions. It necessitates that the writer has something meaningful to convey. Writing on topics of personal interest or areas of expertise often facilitates the process. However, the course will also equip you with strategies for generating content even in challenging situations or unfamiliar topics.

Organization:

Organization pertains to the arrangement of information in your essay. It grapples with decisions on sequencing, determining what comes first, second, and so forth. Additionally, organization encompasses how you commence and conclude your essay. As we progress in the class, we will explore "modes of development" — tools that aid in structuring your myriad thoughts and ideas effectively.

Mechanics:

Mechanics delve into technical aspects like punctuation, spelling, and word choice. Formatting, another facet of mechanics, addresses how your essay visually appears on paper. These elements contribute to the overall polish and professionalism of your writing.

Throughout the semester, the class will provide both practice and guidance in refining your skills across these three critical dimensions.

How do deal with Writer's Block?

A prevalent challenge faced by many students, and indeed individuals worldwide, is the struggle to find meaningful topics to write about. Have you ever found yourself in a situation where a writing assignment looms, whether it's a concise two-page essay, a more extensive six-page piece, or a comprehensive ten-page research paper, only to find yourself staring blankly at an empty sheet of paper or a vacant computer screen? The longer you gaze at that emptiness, the more daunting the task of filling it seems to become.

Let's delve into the root causes of this notorious writer's block. Why do we encounter this difficulty in putting words on the page? Students frequently attribute writer's block to feelings of fear, anxiety, and nervousness, especially when faced with the pressure to fill pages. The more they dwell on the need to meet page requirements, the more their minds seem to empty. To confront this issue, consider the following question: Do you enjoy conversing with friends or family members? Chances are, your answer is "Yes."

Human nature drives us to share our experiences and ideas with others. When grappling with writer's block, envision yourself sitting down with a friend. What would you say to them? Write down everything you would convey in that conversation. Forget about mechanics or organization initially; just capture your thoughts as you would express them in dialogue. This process essentially involves transferring information from your mind onto paper.

The text you produce from this imaginary conversation with your friend may not resemble a polished essay at this stage, but it serves as a starting point. You now have something written. The act of getting words onto paper or a computer screen begins to alleviate some of that initial anxiety. Subsequently, you can revisit and revise what you've written. Future units will provide tools for refining these initial thoughts. For now, extract ideas from your writing that can be developed into a more substantial, serious, or scholarly essay.

In addition to these insights, our online text presents formal strategies for generating ideas and overcoming writer's block. Refer to the following page:

Explore various tools such as Journaling, Freewriting, Brainstorming, and more. No single tool is deemed universally superior; each writer's style and thought process differ. Click on each link, read about the tools, examine examples, and discover which one resonates best with your unique approach.

Unit 2 Discussion

Writer's Block is a common problem that students face when having to write essays. In fact, writer's block even occurs for many persons when they have to write on the job. 

What do you think causes writer's block? Do you have any methods you use to overcome writer's block to get words on the paper (or on the computer screen)?

For me writer's block ends up often being a lack of imagination. I basically hit a point that I don’t know exactly what I want to convey or how I want to write something. I worked for an online video game company for awhile and I would give the NPC (non-playable characters) character’s stories which would end up being quests for players to accomplish. Some of those quests could easily be like over 10,000 lines depending on how advanced. Part of it was giving each a unique feel and I’d find myself at a loss with creation. One of the things that actually helped would be going though books specifically fantasy ones or sometimes I would use other influences such as ones from history or mythology to help myself create new ideas and get out of writer’s block troubles. It’s been quite a few years since I did any creative writing for this type of thing since the company went out of business but it’s really fun being able to make your own world and see it come to life from creative writing and coding. I can say that I created my own cities worth of unique characters and stories and some books worth.

Personal Narrative

Understanding the Narrative Essay: Crafting Compelling Stories with Purpose

In the realm of writing, a narrative essay revolves around recounting events, essentially telling a story. What distinguishes it from a mere story is the narrative's role as a tool to convey a specific point or message. Unraveling this message often requires dedicated time and effort.

Qualities of a Stellar Personal Narrative:

A remarkable personal narrative guides the reader through the experience with meticulous step-by-step detail. It invites the reader to engage their senses, fostering an immersive experience. A well-crafted narrative enables the audience to smell, touch, taste, hear, and see the unfolding story. Incorporating dialogue, metaphors, and vivid sensory descriptions elevates the narrative, making it resonate on a deeper level.

Importantly, a personal narrative need not adhere rigidly to factual accuracy. If bending the truth enhances the essence of the experience, such artistic license is permissible in this context.

Initiating the Writing Process:

To embark on a narrative essay, delve into your memory to uncover a vivid and standout experience. Avoid tackling broad periods like "Junior high school" or "My 14 years in the navy." Instead, focus on a singular event, offering depth and detail, such as "My first junior high track meet" or "Walking home from school in a hurricane."

Transitioning from Pre-write to Draft:

After brainstorming and identifying a compelling topic, proceed to draft your narrative. Perfection is not the aim at this stage; instead, aim for a page and a half or two pages of heartfelt exploration into your chosen topic.

Navigating the Revising Process:

During the revising phase, consider typing your draft into the computer. This is the opportune moment to rearrange elements, identify areas in need of additional evidence, or eliminate segments that disrupt the narrative flow.

Fine-tuning through Editing:

Editing marks the fine-tuning phase. Once you've established strong ideas and organization, scrutinize each sentence meticulously for grammar, spelling, and punctuation. Trim unnecessary words and phrases, such as "really," "very," "a little bit," "kind of," and "sort of." Moreover, be mindful of language choice—opt for everyday language, akin to conversing with a friend. As the narrative unfolds, consider the evolving tone, especially as you transition into more academic forms of writing.

Personal Narrative Essay Assignment

Personal Narrative

For your first essay, you are to write a personal narrative. A narrative is a first-person account of an experience in your life. This will help your instructor get to know you better. Everyone has a story. What is your story? What is an event in your life that holds significance to you? Why is it significant? Why is it meaningful? In writing your narrative you should communicate to your reader the meaning and significance of your story.

Essay Guidelines:

All essays must be typed, double spaced, in Times New Roman font, 12 point

This paper is to be a minimum of two pages.

You can select either APA or MLA formatting style when completing this essay assignment. Please refer to the Formatting Exercise in Unit One for how to set up your assignment in either style. Remember, with APA style you are required to include a title page with your assignment. The title page will not count toward the two required pages of content that you are expected to submit for this essay assignment.

You are expected to use proper grammar and mechanics — refer to a grammar guide as needed.

Personal Narrative Essay Assignment

The experience I had first with my education prior to this back in 2004 was a very stressful but also shaped a large part of my life. During my last year of high school, it wasn’t really stressed about college because I was in special ed and while all the other kids got introduced to scholarship programs and things of that nature. The rest of us that were in special ed only got the information after all the rest of the kids submitted all the scholarship’s making not much left that we could apply for. So, after graduation and I was figuring out what I wanted to do. 

I made the mistake of picking an online college from a TV ad called Westwood Online College in Denver CO. At the time they said they were nationally accredited and that you could complete college without having to go anywhere. And not having to go to dorms was another draw for it. What I didn’t know at the time was the trouble I was getting myself into. 

The next part was the student loans it was very easy to get approved and once they had access, they wasted no time charging me for things. I picked the Information Systems Security Bachelor’s Degree and started class right away. The class work wasn’t really much of a challenge and they started sending me duplicates of some of the software and book materials which they wouldn’t take as returns because they said it was “used” even if I didn’t open boxes and such. 

After about 5 months of college, I could see the bills they were charging me for this education started to be really outrageous which was $21,000 already. So, I worked with them to switch to a program which could be completed in less time which would be associate's degree instead and went for another two months before finding out that the bill was already up another 9,000. At this point I decided to drop out because I didn’t want to end up with any more bills which I couldn’t pay. The billing department was pretty shady about it too the bills I receive where actually writing on note paper and wasn’t professional at all. 

Well at this point almost a complete year later I get a new bill for Westwood saying that the old billing was wrong that I owed 38k which they force charged student loans a year later. Which my parents then sent a certified letter to the loan company saying they were not authorized to take out more money and there had to be a mistake about these extra funds. Sallie Mae loans said if the school provided documentation to them saying there wasn’t more charges, they would reverse them. The school though would not admit to that even with the proof of the paperwork. 

Then about 6 months after that point they charged another large amount saying the billing was wrong again saying I owed 58,570 since they could no longer charge the Sallie Mae loans for this new increase of money they went ahead and put it up with Williams & Fudge collection agency for $20,570 this debt collector would call me everyday screaming at me and harassing me and just being really toxic. The interest they charged was 44% interest compounded monthly so you can imagine how an amount would grow in size to be a substantial amount. But I barely had enough money to keep minimum payments up on the federal loans without worrying about the collection agency. 

I tried to seek help from the BBB and from the board of education and local governor and senator but at the time for-profit colleges where an unknown thing and as long as a school could come up with billing information and posted information on it, they could get away with murder. The collection agency only stopped coming after me when the school started to get in trouble for some of the things, they did like false advertisement of accreditation. 

But even with all the class action lawsuits that happened the school just shut down when things got too difficult for them and people like me really didn’t see anything for all the pain and suffering. Honestly if it wasn’t for the free college program offered by my union all the PTSD, I have from dealing with the pervious college I went to I most likely wouldn’t have even tried going back to college or ended up at EGCC.

 I was able to pay off the student loans myself after years and years but it’s a kick in the teeth now that people are getting loans forgiven and I was charged all that money with nothing to show for cause the transcript isn’t transferable and the credits are worthless and don’t mean anything. But I am glad that they made it harder to get student loans for people and put more effort into protecting people in the future cause I would hate anyone to have to go through the same.