ENG101 English Composition I Chapter 4

Chapter 4: Working with Words: Which Word Is Right?

4.1 Commonly Confused Words

Just as a skilled mason artfully assembles bricks to erect robust homes, writers craft successful documents using the precision of language. Consider the intricate process of constructing a towering skyscraper. Builders meticulously employ resilient materials, ensuring each component contributes to a solid and structurally sound edifice, from the foundational base to the soaring roof and every floor in between. Similarly, writers must wield powerful and meaningful words, seamlessly weaving them from the inaugural sentence to the closing remarks and throughout every sentence in between.

While you undoubtedly possess a repertoire of words integral to your daily writing and communication, recognizing that certain words harmonize better with specific contexts is paramount. Whether drafting letters, emails, or hastily penned grocery lists, the judicious selection of vocabulary is essential. Envision composing a grocery list for a recipe and inadvertently jotting down "cilantro" instead of "parsley." Despite their striking visual resemblance, each herb imparts a distinctly different flavor to dishes. Such seemingly minor errors can significantly reshape the culinary outcome!

While a robust everyday vocabulary serves as a foundation for effective writing, the acquisition of new words and the avoidance of common pitfalls elevate your writing to a new echelon. Accomplished writers understand that intentional, meticulous word choice enhances the polish and significance of their work. This chapter delves into strategies for word choice and vocabulary expansion, offering insights to refine and elevate your writing craft.

Commonly Confused Words

Certain words in the English language pose challenges for both speakers and writers due to their similar pronunciation, meaning, or spelling with other words. These linguistic stumbling blocks are aptly referred to as commonly confused words. To illustrate, let's examine the following sentences featuring the frequently misused pair, "new" and "knew":

I liked his new sweater.

I knew he would wear that sweater today.

While these words may share a similar auditory resonance, their usages and meanings diverge significantly. "New" functions as an adjective, describing the sweater, while "knew" serves as the past tense form of the verb "to know." For a comprehensive exploration of adjectives, verbs, and other essential components of language, delve into Chapter 2, titled "Writing Basics: What Makes a Good Sentence?".

Recognizing Commonly Confused Words

"New" and "knew" represent merely a pair among the many words that often confound due to their similarities. Take the time to acquaint yourself with the following compilation of commonly confused words. Developing familiarity with these distinctions, both in your own writing and in other literary works, will empower you to confidently select the accurate word for any given context.

Commonly Confused Words

A, An, And

A (article). Used before a word that begins with a consonant.

a key, a mouse, a screen

An (article). Used before a word that begins with a vowel.

an airplane, an ocean, an igloo

And (conjunction). Connects two or more words together.

peanut butter and jelly, pen and pencil, jump and shout

Accept, Except

Accept (verb). Means to take or agree to something offered.

They accepted our proposal for the conference.

Except (conjunction). Means only or but.

We could fly there except the tickets cost too much.

Affect, Effect

Affect (verb). Means to create a change.

Hurricane winds affect the amount of rainfall.

Effect (noun). Means an outcome or result.

The heavy rains will have an effect on the crop growth.

Are, Our

Are (verb). A conjugated form of the verb to be.

My cousins are all tall and blonde.

Our (pronoun). Indicates possession, usually follows the pronoun we.

We will bring our cameras to take pictures.

By, Buy

By (preposition). Means next to.

My glasses are by the bed.

Buy (verb). Means to purchase.

I will buy new glasses after the doctor’s appointment.

Its, It’s

Its (pronoun). A form of it that shows possession.

The butterfly flapped its wings.

It’s (contraction). Joins the words it and is.

It’s the most beautiful butterfly I have ever seen.

Know, No

Know (verb). Means to understand or possess knowledge.

I know the male peacock sports the brilliant feathers.

No. Used to make a negative.

I have no time to visit the zoo this weekend.

Loose, Lose

Loose (adjective). Describes something that is not tight or is detached.

Without a belt, her pants are loose on her waist.

Lose (verb). Means to forget, to give up, or to fail to earn something.

She will lose even more weight after finishing the marathon training.

Of, Have

Of (preposition). Means from or about.

I studied maps of the city to know where to rent a new apartment.

Have (verb). Means to possess something.

I have many friends to help me move.

Have (linking verb). Used to connect verbs.

I should have helped her with that heavy box.

Quite, Quiet, Quit

Quite (adverb). Means really or truly.

My work will require quite a lot of concentration.

Quiet (adjective). Means not loud.

I need a quiet room to complete the assignments.

Quit (verb). Means to stop or to end.

I will quit when I am hungry for dinner.

Right, Write

Right (adjective). Means proper or correct.

When bowling, she practices the right form.

Right (adjective). Also means the opposite of left.

The ball curved to the right and hit the last pin.

Write (verb). Means to communicate on paper.

After the team members bowl, I will write down their scores.

Set, Sit

Set (verb). Means to put an item down.

She set the mug on the saucer.

Set (noun). Means a group of similar objects.

All the mugs and saucers belonged in a set.

Sit (verb). Means to lower oneself down on a chair or another place

I’ll sit on the sofa while she brews the tea.

Suppose, Supposed

Suppose (verb). Means to think or to consider

I suppose I will bake the bread, because no one else has the recipe.

Suppose (verb). Means to suggest.

Suppose we all split the cost of the dinner.

Supposed (verb). The past tense form of the verb suppose, meaning required or allowed.

She was supposed to create the menu.

Than, Then

Than (conjunction). Used to connect two or more items when comparing

Registered nurses require less schooling than doctors.

Then (adverb). Means next or at a specific time.

Doctors first complete medical school and then obtain a residency.

Their, They’re, There

Their (pronoun). A form of they that shows possession.

The dog walker feeds their dogs everyday at two o’clock.

They’re (contraction). Joins the words they and are.

They’re the sweetest dogs in the neighborhood.

There (adverb). Indicates a particular place.

The dogs’ bowls are over there, next to the pantry.

There (pronoun). Indicates the presence of something

There are more treats if the dogs behave.

To, Two, Too

To (preposition). Indicates movement.

Let’s go to the circus.

To. A word that completes an infinitive verb.

to play, to ride, to watch.

Two. The number after one. It describes how many.

Two clowns squirted the elephants with water.

Too (adverb). Means also or very.

The tents were too loud, and we left.

Use, Used

Use (verb). Means to apply for some purpose.

We use a weed whacker to trim the hedges.

Used. The past tense form of the verb to use

He used the lawnmower last night before it rained.

Used to. Indicates something done in the past but not in the present

He used to hire a team to landscape, but now he landscapes alone.

Who’s, Whose

Who’s (contraction). Joins the words who and either is or has.

Who’s the new student? Who’s met him?

Whose (pronoun). A form of who that shows possession.

Whose schedule allows them to take the new student on a campus tour?

Your, You’re

Your (pronoun). A form of you that shows possession.

Your book bag is unzipped.

You’re (contraction). Joins the words you and are.

You’re the girl with the unzipped book bag.

The English language boasts an extensive vocabulary, with the exact count eluding certainty. Many words within English find their roots in diverse linguistic origins, contributing to its rich and varied lexicon. Adding to this linguistic complexity, numerous words exhibit multiple meanings and forms, further augmenting the already immeasurable spectrum of English words. While a list of commonly confused words proves beneficial, it is essential to acknowledge that even these words might harbor more meanings than presented here. When uncertainties arise, a reliable resource stands ready for consultation: the dictionary!

Exercise

Complete the following sentences by selecting the correct word.

My little cousin turns ________(to, too, two) years old tomorrow.

The next-door neighbor’s dog is ________(quite, quiet, quit) loud. He barks constantly throughout the night.

________(Your, You’re) mother called this morning to talk about the party.

I would rather eat a slice of chocolate cake ________(than, then) eat a chocolate muffin.

Before the meeting, he drank a cup of coffee and ________(than, then) brushed his teeth.

Do you have any ________(loose, lose) change to pay the parking meter?

Father must ________(have, of) left his briefcase at the office.

Before playing ice hockey, I was ________(suppose, supposed) to read the contract, but I only skimmed it and signed my name quickly, which may ________(affect, effect) my understanding of the rules.

Tonight she will ________(set, sit) down and ________(right, write) a cover letter to accompany her résumé and job application.

It must be fall, because the leaves ________(are, our) changing, and ________(it’s, its) getting darker earlier.

Strategies to Avoid Commonly Confused Words

In the realm of writing, the precision of word choice is paramount. It entails aligning the selected word with both its accurate spelling and contextual meaning. This practice not only enhances your vocabulary and writing prowess but also leaves a favorable impression on your readers. The careful selection of words serves as a remedy for confusion, fostering clarity in your communication. To navigate the potential pitfalls of confusing words, consider implementing the following strategies to ensure accuracy and coherence in your writing.

Integrate a dictionary into your writing routine by keeping one at your desk. Whenever uncertainty arises about the meaning or spelling of a word, consult the dictionary for swift clarification. With the convenience of online dictionaries, accessing them via the internet ensures efficiency without impeding your workflow. Explore the possibility of a dictionary app on your cell phone or smartphone for on-the-go assistance.

Compile a personalized list of words that frequently trip you up. As you identify recurring points of confusion, maintain this list within easy reach and refer to it as you compose your text. Before submitting any work to your instructor, revisit this list to safeguard against overlooked errors.

Familiarize yourself with a curated compilation of commonly confused words. Even if you're not currently aware of your stumbling blocks, take proactive measures by reviewing a list of such words before embarking on your writing endeavors. This pre-writing exercise primes your mind for precision, cultivating a heightened awareness of potential linguistic pitfalls.

Commonly confused words have a tendency to surface in various contexts beyond the confines of work or school. Stay vigilant for instances of misused words in any setting throughout your day. Take mental note of these errors and commit their corrections to memory, ensuring that the lessons learned from such observations are applied to your own writing endeavors. This proactive approach to recognizing and rectifying linguistic pitfalls will contribute to the refinement of your communication skills across diverse scenarios.

Writing at Work

Effective communication is a universally valued skill among employers. Whether it's the initial job application, the interview process, or the first month on the job, your vocabulary is under scrutiny. It's not about having an expansive vocabulary, but rather the ability to articulate thoughts clearly and steer clear of commonly misused words.

Consider a pivotal presentation addressing the impact of inflation on profit margins – distinguishing between "effect" and "affect" becomes crucial. Likewise, when composing an email to confirm deliveries, precision is required to determine whether the shipment will arrive "in two days," "too days," or "to days." The potential for confusion heightens with each word choice.

Consistently employing the correct words enhances your communication skills, leaving a positive and lasting impression on both superiors and colleagues.

Exercise

The following paragraph contains eleven errors. Find each misused word and correct it by adding the proper word.

The original United States Declaration of Independence sets in a case at the Rotunda for the Charters of Freedom as part of the National Archives in Washington, DC. Since 1952, over one million visitors each year of passed through the Rotunda too snap a photograph to capture they’re experience. Although signs state, “No Flash Photography,” forgetful tourists leave the flash on, an a bright light flickers for just a millisecond. This millisecond of light may not seem like enough to effect the precious document, but supposed how much light could be generated when all those milliseconds are added up. According to the National Archives administrators, its enough to significantly damage the historic document. So, now, the signs display quit a different message: “No Photography.” Visitors continue to travel to see the Declaration that began are country, but know longer can personal pictures serve as mementos. The administrators’ compromise, they say, is a visit to the gift shop for a preprinted photograph.

4.2 Spelling

Accurate spelling is a fundamental aspect of proficient writing. While computer spell checkers have simplified the task, they are not infallible, necessitating careful consideration from the writer. Although these programs can detect certain errors, writers must actively assess flagged words and consider suggested replacements. The ultimate responsibility for the accuracy of the text remains with the writer.

For instance, when a spell checker highlights a misspelled word and presents a list of alternatives, choosing a correctly spelled but unintended word is a common pitfall. This innocent oversight can alter the intended meaning of a sentence, causing confusion and a potential loss of reader interest. While computer spell checkers serve as valuable editing tools, they are no substitute for human knowledge encompassing spelling rules, homonyms, and frequently misspelled words.

Common Spelling Rules

Mastering new words is most effectively achieved by grasping the key spelling rules. It's important to note, though, that certain spelling rules come with exceptions. While a spell checker can identify some of these exceptions, having a personal understanding of them ensures accurate spelling from the outset. Consider approaching the memorization of spelling rules and their exceptions akin to committing a rhyme or song lyrics to memory – a deliberate and repetitive process that enhances retention and application.

Write i before e except after c, or when pronounced ay like “neighbor” or “weigh.”

achieve, niece, alien

receive, deceive

When words end in a consonant plus y, drop the y and add an i before adding another ending.

happy + er = happier

cry + ed = cried

When words end in a vowel plus y, keep the y and add the ending.

delay + ed = delayed

Memorize the following exceptions to this rule: day, lay, say, pay = daily, laid, said, paid

When adding an ending that begins with a vowel, such as –able, –ence, –ing, or –ity, drop the last e in a word.

write + ing = writing

pure + ity = purity

When adding an ending that begins with a consonant, such as –less, –ment, or –ly, keep the last e in a word.

hope + less = hopeless

advertise + ment = advertisement

For many words ending in a consonant and an o, add –s when using the plural form.

photo + s = photos

soprano + s = sopranos

Add –es to words that end in s, ch, sh, and x.

church + es = churches

fax + es = faxes

Exercise

Identify and correct the nine misspelled words in the following paragraph.

Sherman J. Alexie Jr. was born in October 1966. He is a Spokane/Coeur d’Alene Indian and an American writer, poet, and filmmaker. Alexie was born with hydrocephalus, or water on the brain. This condition led doctors to predict that he would likly suffer long-term brain damage and possibly mental retardation. Although Alexie survived with no mental disabilitys, he did suffer other serious side effects from his condition that plagud him throughout his childhood. Amazingly, Alexie learned to read by the age of three, and by age five he had read novels such as John Steinbeck’s The Grapes of Wrath. Raised on an Indian reservation, Alexie often felt aleinated from his peers due to his avid love for reading and also from the long-term effects of his illness, which often kept him from socializeing with his peers on the reservation. The reading skills he displaid at such a young age foreshadowed what he would later become. Today Alexie is a prolific and successful writer with several story anthologeis to his credit, noteably The Lone Ranger and Tonto Fistfight in Heaven and The Toughest Indian in the World. Most of his fiction is about contemporary Native Americans who are influenced by pop culture and pow wows and everything in between. His work is sometimes funny but always thoughtful and full of richness and depth. Alexie also writes poetry, novels, and screenplays. His latest collection of storys is called War Dances, which came out in 2009.

Enhancing Spelling Skills: Eight Proven Strategies

Deliberate Reading: Scrutinize each word in your assignment with precision, avoiding hasty skimming. A meticulous approach to reading will help you catch and rectify any misspelled words that might be overlooked during a quick scan.

Mnemonic Mastery: Harness the power of mnemonic devices, such as memorable sayings or creative practices, to reinforce correct spellings. For instance, the phrase “It is important to be a beautiful person inside and out” can aid in recalling that "beautiful" begins with “be a.” Similarly, pronouncing "Wednesday" as "Wed-nes-day" can serve as a mnemonic to remember its correct spelling.

Dictionary Dependence: Leverage the invaluable resource of a dictionary, whether in print or online. If a traditional dictionary proves challenging, seek guidance from your instructor to find a more user-friendly option, often referred to as a “poor speller’s dictionary.”

Tech-Savvy Support: Employ your computer’s spell checker as a helpful tool. While it won’t catch every error, it can serve as an initial line of defense. However, exercise caution and refer to the introduction for insights on the limitations of spell checkers.

Track Misspellings: Keep a record of words you frequently misspell. Recognizing and acknowledging your spelling weaknesses is the first step to improvement. Compile a list and dedicate time to mastering the correct spelling of these words.

Learn from Corrections: Pay close attention to corrections on your papers, noting any misspelled words. Add these words to your personal list and reinforce your learning by practicing writing each one four to five times. This proactive approach will be noticed and appreciated by your writing instructors.

Flashcard Drills: Embrace the time-tested technique of using flashcards for self-testing. Whether in collaboration with a peer or through individual practice, flashcards provide an interactive and engaging way to reinforce spelling skills.

Rule Review: Regularly revisit the fundamental spelling rules outlined in this chapter. Mastering these rules takes time, so be patient and return to them as needed. A solid understanding of spelling rules will serve as a reliable foundation for continual improvement.

Ensure meticulous attention to spelling by incorporating it into the crucial editing and revising step of your writing process. Begin by tackling the significant aspects, such as organizing your content and crafting effective paragraphs. Gradually shift your focus to the finer details, giving due importance to elements like spelling and punctuation.

Commence your revision journey by addressing the overarching ideas, refining the structure of your writing, and enhancing paragraph development. As you progress, hone in on the nuances that contribute to polished and error-free writing. Recognize that while big ideas shape the substance of your composition, the precision of spelling and punctuation equally refines the delivery.

For a comprehensive exploration of the writing process, including invaluable insights into the art of editing and revising, delve into Chapter 8 titled “The Writing Process: How Do I Begin?” This resource will guide you through the intricacies of refining your work, ensuring a seamless blend of creativity and attention to detail in your writing endeavors.

Homonyms

Homonyms, often misunderstood due to their shared phonetics, are words that bear a similar sound yet harbor distinct meanings.

Commonly Misused Homonyms

Principle, Principal

Principle (noun). A fundamental concept that is accepted as true.

The principle of human equality is an important foundation for all nations.

Principal (noun). The original amount of debt on which interest is calculated.

The payment plan allows me to pay back only the principal amount, not any compounded interest.

Principal (noun). A person who is the main authority of a school.

The principal held a conference for both parents and teachers.

Where, Wear, Ware

Where (adverb). The place in which something happens.

Where is the restaurant?

Wear (verb). To carry or have on the body.

I will wear my hiking shoes when go on a climb tomorrow morning.

Ware (noun). Articles of merchandise or manufacture (usually, wares).

When I return from shopping, I will show you my wares.

Lead, Led

Lead (noun). A type of metal used in pipes and batteries.

The lead pipes in my homes are old and need to be replaced.

Led (verb). The past tense of the verb lead.

After the garden, she led the patrons through the museum.

Which, Witch

Which (pronoun). Replaces one out of a group.

Which apartment is yours?

Witch (noun). A person who practices sorcery or who has supernatural powers.

He thinks he is a warlock, but he does not seem to have any powers.

Peace, Piece

Peace (noun). A state of tranquility or quiet.

For once, there was peace between the argumentative brothers.

Piece (noun). A part of a whole.

I would like a large piece of cake, thank you.

Passed, Past

Passed (verb). To go away or move.

She passed the slower cars on the road using the left lane.

Past (noun). Having existed or taken place in a period before the present.

The argument happened in the past, so there is no use in dwelling on it.

Lessen, Lesson

Lessen (verb). To reduce in number, size, or degree.

My dentist gave me medicine to lessen the pain of my aching tooth.

Lesson (noun). A reading or exercise to be studied by a student.

Today’s lesson was about mortgage interest rates.

Patience, Patients

Patience (noun). The capacity of being patient (waiting for a period of time or enduring pains and trials calmly).

The novice teacher’s patience with the unruly class was astounding.

Patients (plural noun). Individuals under medical care.

The patients were tired of eating the hospital food, and they could not wait for a home-cooked meal.

Sees, Seas, Seize

Sees (verb). To perceive with the eye.

He sees a whale through his binoculars.

Seas (plural noun). The plural of sea, a great body of salt water.

The tidal fluctuation of the oceans and seas are influenced by the moon.

Seize (verb). To possess or take by force.

The king plans to seize all the peasants’ land.

Threw, Through

Threw (verb). The past tense of throw.

He threw the football with perfect form.

Through (preposition). A word that indicates movement.

He walked through the door and out of his life.

Exercise

Complete the following sentences by selecting the correct homonym.

Do you agree with the underlying ________(principle, principal) that ensures copyrights are protected in the digital age?

I like to ________(where, wear, ware) unique clothing from thrift stores that do not have company logos on them.

Marjorie felt like she was being ________(led, lead) on a wild goose chase, and she did not like it one bit.

Serina described ________(witch, which) house was hers, but now that I am here, they all look the same.

Seeing his friend without a lunch, Miguel gave her a ________(peace, piece) of his apple.

Do you think that it is healthy for mother to talk about the ________(passed, past) all the time?

Eating healthier foods will ________(lessen, lesson) the risk of heart disease.

I know it sounds cliché, but my father had the ________(patients, patience) of a saint.

Daniela ________(sees, seas, seize) possibilities in the bleakest situations, and that it is why she is successful.

Everyone goes ________(through, threw) hardships in life regardless of who they are.

Commonly Misspelled Words

Enclosed is a compilation of frequently misspelled words that likely find their way into your daily speech and writing. Each word is accompanied by a bolded segment, pinpointing the specific area where spelling errors commonly occur. Consider utilizing this list as a helpful reference both prior to and following your writing endeavors, ensuring greater accuracy in your use of these words.

Employ the following two effective strategies to conquer these challenging words:

Repetition and Highlighting:

Write each troublesome word multiple times, emphasizing the problematic segment by underlining it. This tactile approach reinforces visual recognition and helps engrain the correct spelling in your memory.

Flashcard Reinforcement:

Transform the words into flashcards, writing them on one side and their correct spellings on the reverse. Engage a friend to test your knowledge, creating an interactive and collaborative learning experience. The act of recall strengthens your grasp on the correct spelling of each word.

Commonly Misspelled Words Table

Exercise

Identify and correct the ten commonly misspelled words in the following paragraph.

Brooklyn is one of the five boroughs that make up New York City. It is located on the eastern shore of Long Island directly accross the East River from the island of Manhattan. Its beginings stretch back to the sixteenth century when it was founded by the Dutch who originally called it “Breuckelen.” Immedietely after the Dutch settled Brooklyn, it came under British rule. However, neither the Dutch nor the British were Brooklyn’s first inhabitants. When European settlers first arrived, Brooklyn was largely inhabited by the Lenapi, a collective name for several organized bands of Native American people who settled a large area of land that extended from upstate New York through the entire state of New Jersey. They are sometimes referred to as the Delaware Indians. Over time, the Lenapi succumbed to European diseases or conflicts between European settlers or other Native American enemies. Finalley they were pushed out of Brooklyn completely by the British.

In 1776, Brooklyn was the site of the first importent battle of the American Revolution known as the Battle of Brooklyn. The colonists lost this battle, which was led by George Washington, but over the next two years they would win the war, kicking the British out of the colonies once and for all.

By the end of the nineteenth century, Brooklyn grew to be a city in its own right. The completion of the Brooklyn Bridge was an ocasion for celebration; transportation and commerce between Brooklyn and Manhattan now became much easier. Eventually, in 1898, Brooklyn lost its seperate identity as an independent city and became one of five boroughs of New York City. However, in some people’s opinien, the intagration into New York City should have never happened; they though Brooklyn should have remained an independent city.

Writing at Work

In today's competitive job market, crafting effective emails has evolved into a key strategy for securing employment. Messages directed towards potential employers necessitate careful consideration of word choice, meticulous spelling, and impeccable punctuation. Given the sheer volume of emails flooding employers' inboxes on a daily basis, any hint of a spelling error, even in the subject line, could relegate your email to obscurity, with others taking precedence.

Once you've thoroughly proofread your email and utilized the spell checker, a prudent step is to engage an additional set of eyes for a collaborative review. Seek feedback from a trusted teacher who can offer valuable suggestions for improvement. Alternatively, tap into the resources provided by colleges and universities, such as writing centers, which are often equipped to assist you in enhancing the quality of your communication with prospective employers. This collaborative approach ensures that your emails are not only error-free but also polished to make a lasting impression on potential employers.

4.3 Word Choice

Effective writing hinges on deliberate word choices. Before embarking on your first draft, you've likely engaged in freewriting exercises, honed your topic, crafted a thesis statement, outlined your thoughts, and selected relevant sources. As you transition to the actual writing phase, the consideration of which words to employ becomes paramount in conveying your ideas to the reader.

Some writers, from the onset of drafting, are discerning about word choice. They adopt specific strategies such as consulting dictionaries and thesauruses, utilizing words with nuanced connotations, and steering clear of slang, clichés, and overly general expressions.

Once you grasp these nuanced techniques, you can approach your writing with confidence. Recognize that the precision and artistry of your word selection play a pivotal role in shaping your unique writing style. The careful selection of words not only enhances clarity in your written work but also extends to effective oral communication. Ultimately, mastering the intricacies of word choice contributes significantly to the development of your distinct writing voice.

Using a Dictionary and Thesaurus

Even seasoned writers acknowledge the necessity of assistance when it comes to understanding the meanings, spellings, pronunciations, and usages of specific words. Surprisingly, even professionals turn to dictionaries to enhance their writing skills. Given the vast and ever-evolving nature of the English language, no individual, regardless of their expertise, can claim comprehensive knowledge of every word and its myriad uses. Thus, whether a novice or an experienced writer, the use of dictionaries remains a valuable and indispensable tool for refining one's craft.

Invaluable information provided by most dictionaries includes:

Spelling: Detailed guidance on how the word and its various forms are correctly spelled.

Pronunciation: Clear instructions on how to articulate the word.

Part of Speech: Insight into the grammatical function of the word.

Definition: A concise explanation of the word's meaning.

Synonyms: Alternative words with similar meanings.

Etymology: Tracing the historical roots and development of the word.

To illustrate, let's examine the sample dictionary entry provided, identifying the pertinent information among the aforementioned elements.

myth, mith, n. [Gr. mythos, a word, a fable, a legend.] A fable or legend embodying the convictions of a people as to their gods or other divine beings, their own beginnings and early history and the heroes connected with it, or the origin of the world; any invented story; something or someone having no existence in fact.—myth • ic, myth • i • cal

Similar to a dictionary, a thesaurus stands as an essential asset in the writer's toolkit. This linguistic companion provides a catalog of synonyms—words that share identical or closely related meanings—and antonyms, which are words with opposite meanings. The thesaurus becomes a guiding light when you seek the ideal word to precisely convey your thoughts, aiding in the refinement of your language choices.

The benefits of using a thesaurus extend beyond mere synonym exploration. It serves as a valuable resource for expanding your vocabulary, allowing you to discover new words and refine your understanding of those you already know. By consulting a thesaurus, you not only enhance your language proficiency but also cultivate a more nuanced and precise expression of your ideas.

precocious adj, She’s such a precocious little girl!: uncommonly smart, mature, advanced, smart, bright, brilliant, gifted, quick, clever, apt.

Ant. slow, backward, stupid.

Using Proper Connotations

A denotation encapsulates the precise, dictionary-defined meaning of a word. Conversely, a connotation delves into the emotional or cultural undertones associated with a word. This additional layer of meaning can sway towards positivity, negativity, or neutrality. When selecting words, it is imperative to be mindful of their connotative implications, as this choice not only influences the literal interpretation but also evokes a specific emotional or cultural resonance. Therefore, an astute writer considers both the denotation and connotation of words to ensure their communication is not only accurate but also nuanced and attuned to the intended tone.

Scrawny

Denotation: Exceptionally thin and slight or meager in body or size.

Word used in a sentence: Although he was a premature baby and a scrawny child, Martin has developed into a strong man.

Connotation: (Negative) In this sentence the word scrawny may have a negative connotation in the readers’ minds. They might find it to mean a weakness or a personal flaw; however, the word fits into the sentence appropriately.

Skinny

Denotation: Lacking sufficient flesh, very thin.

Word used in a sentence: Skinny jeans have become very fashionable in the past couple of years.

Connotation: (Positive) Based on cultural and personal impressions of what it means to be skinny, the reader may have positive connotations of the word skinny.

Lean

Denotation: Lacking or deficient in flesh; containing little or no fat.

Word used in a sentence: My brother has a lean figure, whereas I have a more muscular build.

Connotation: (Neutral) In this sentence, lean has a neutral connotation. It does not call to mind an overly skinny person like the word scrawny, nor does imply the positive cultural impressions of the word skinny. It is merely a neutral descriptive word.

It's important to observe that while the words share a closely related denotation, their connotations diverge significantly.

Exercise

In each of the following items, you will find words with similar denotations. Identify the words’ connotations as positive, negative, or neutral by writing the word in the appropriate box. Copy the chart onto your own piece of paper.

curious, nosy, interested

lazy, relaxed, slow

courageous, foolhardy, assured

new, newfangled, modern

mansion, shack, residence

spinster, unmarried woman, career woman

giggle, laugh, cackle

boring, routine, prosaic

noted, notorious, famous

assertive, confident, pushy

Positive Negative Neutral

Avoiding Slang

Slang encompasses informal expressions that fall outside the realm of standard English. It is characterized by its dynamic nature, often evolving with passing trends and limited to a specific social or cultural group. Slang is prevalent in everyday conversation, finding its place in personal communications like emails, text messages, and instant messages. While it may be entirely fitting in casual exchanges between friends, it is advisable to steer clear of slang in the context of formal academic writing.   

Writing at Work        

Our consistent exposure to media and popular culture has, to some extent, desensitized us to the nuances of slang. While there are contexts where incorporating slang at work might not raise immediate concerns, it's crucial to recognize the influential impact words can carry. In professional settings, especially in emails or during meetings, the use of slang could potentially send the wrong message or inadvertently cause offense. Being mindful of our language choices in the workplace ensures effective communication and helps avoid unintended misinterpretations. 

Exercise

Edit the following paragraph by replacing the slang words and phrases with more formal language. Rewrite the paragraph on your own sheet of paper.

I felt like such an airhead when I got up to give my speech. As I walked toward the podium, I banged my knee on a chair. Man, I felt like such a klutz. On top of that, I kept saying “like” and “um,” and I could not stop fidgeting. I was so stressed out about being up there. I feel like I’ve been practicing this speech 24/7, and I still bombed. It was ten minutes of me going off about how we sometimes have to do things we don’t enjoy doing. Wow, did I ever prove my point. My speech was so bad I’m surprised that people didn’t boo. My teacher said not to sweat it, though. Everyone gets nervous his or her first time speaking in public, and she said, with time, I would become a whiz at this speech giving stuff. I wonder if I have the guts to do it again.

Avoiding Clichés

Clichés are descriptive expressions that have lost their impact due to frequent use. When writing relies on clichés, it tends to lose originality and depth. Steering clear of clichés in formal writing is essential for fostering creativity and ensuring your expression remains fresh and insightful.

Clichéd: Whenever my brother and I get into an argument, he always says something that makes my blood boil.

Plain: Whenever my brother and I get into an argument, he always says something that makes me really angry.

Original: Whenever my brother and I get into an argument, he always says something that makes me want to go to the gym and punch the bag for a few hours.

   

Consider the myriad cliché phrases prevalent in popular music and everyday conversation. Imagine the transformative power that comes with reshaping these clichés into something uniquely original. By infusing your language with fresh perspectives and innovative twists, you elevate your expression from the mundane to the extraordinary. Embracing the challenge of reimagining clichés opens up exciting possibilities for creative communication.

Exercise   
   

On your own sheet of paper, revise the following sentences by replacing the clichés with fresh, original descriptions.

She is writing a memoir in which she will air her family’s dirty laundry.

Fran had an ax to grind with Benny, and she planned to confront him that night at the party.

Mr. Muller was at his wit’s end with the rowdy class of seventh graders.

The bottom line is that Greg was fired because he missed too many days of work.

Sometimes it is hard to make ends meet with just one paycheck.

My brain is fried from pulling an all-nighter.

Maria left the dishes in the sink all week to give Jeff a taste of his own medicine.

While they were at the carnival Janice exclaimed, “Time sure does fly when you are having fun!”

Jeremy became tongue-tied after the interviewer asked him where he saw himself in five years.

Jordan was dressed to the nines that night.

   

Avoiding Overly General Words  

Inject vitality into your writing by opting for specific words and vivid imagery. Resist the temptation to rely on generic terms, and instead, replace them with precise nouns, dynamic verbs, and expressive modifiers that breathe life into your prose. Infuse your writing with words that evoke color, texture, sound, and even fragrance, transforming your composition into a vibrant and engaging tapestry of details.

General: My new puppy is cute.

Specific: My new puppy is a ball of white fuzz with the biggest black eyes I have ever seen.

General: My teacher told us that plagiarism is bad.

Specific: My teacher, Ms. Atwater, created a presentation detailing exactly how plagiarism is illegal and unethical.

Exercise   

Revise the following sentences by replacing the overly general words with more precise and attractive language. Write the new sentences on your own sheet of paper.

Reilly got into her car and drove off.

I would like to travel to outer space because it would be amazing.

Jane came home after a bad day at the office.

I thought Milo’s essay was fascinating.

The dog walked up the street.

The coal miners were tired after a long day.

The tropical fish are pretty.

I sweat a lot after running.

The goalie blocked the shot.

I enjoyed my Mexican meal.

   

4.4 Prefixes and Suffixes  

 

The English language boasts an extensive and continually expanding lexicon. While the prospect of enriching your vocabulary might seem daunting, a strategic approach involves familiarizing yourself with common prefixes and suffixes in English. This endeavor is akin to deciphering a code; once you unravel it, you gain not only the ability to spell words more accurately but also the capacity to identify and potentially define unfamiliar terms. In essence, grasping these linguistic building blocks unlocks a deeper understanding of the language and empowers you to navigate its complexities with greater ease.

Prefixes

A prefix serves as a linguistic building block, affixed to the beginning of a word to imbue it with a new meaning. Dive into a comprehensive exploration of these transformative elements by delving into the wealth of common prefixes detailed in Table of common prefixes found below. This study not only equips you with the knowledge to decipher word meanings but also lays the foundation for a more nuanced understanding of the intricate structure of the English language.

Exercise

Identify the five words with prefixes in the following paragraph, and write their meanings on a separate sheet of paper.

At first, I thought one of my fuzzy, orange socks disappeared in the dryer, but I could not find it in there. Because it was my favorite pair, nothing was going to prevent me from finding that sock. I looked all around my bedroom, under the bed, on top of the bed, and in my closet, but I still could not find it. I did not know that I would discover the answer just as I gave up my search. As I sat down on the couch in the family room, my Dad was reclining on his chair. I laughed when I saw that one of his feet was orange and the other blue! I forgot that he was color-blind. Next time he does laundry I will have to supervise him while he folds the socks so that he does not accidentally take one of mine!

Add the correct prefix to the word to complete each sentence. Write the word on your own sheet of paper.

I wanted to ease my stomach ________comfort, so I drank some ginger root tea.

Lenny looked funny in his ________matched shirt and pants.

Penelope felt ________glamorous at the party because she was the only one not wearing a dress.

My mother said those ________aging creams do not work, so I should not waste my money on them.

The child’s ________standard performance on the test alarmed his parents.

When my sister first saw the meteor, she thought it was a ________natural phenomenon.

Even though she got an excellent job offer, Cherie did not want to ________locate to a different country.

With a small class size, the students get to ________act with the teacher more frequently.

I slipped on the ice because I did not heed the ________cautions about watching my step.

A ________combatant is another word for civilian.

Suffixes

A suffix functions as a linguistic appendage, seamlessly attached to the end of a word to impart a fresh layer of meaning. Immerse yourself in a study of the rules governing suffixes, meticulously outlined in the following boxes. This exploration not only facilitates the comprehension of word modifications but also provides a roadmap for navigating the diverse and dynamic landscape of suffix usage in the English language.

Rule 1

When adding the suffixes –ness and –ly to a word, the spelling of the word does not change.

Examples:

dark + ness = darkness

scholar + ly = scholarly

Exceptions to Rule 1

When the word ends in y, change the y to i before adding –ness and –ly.

Examples:

ready + ly = readily

happy + ness = happiness

Rule 2

When the suffix begins with a vowel, drop the silent e in the root word.

Examples:

care + ing = caring

use + able = usable

Exceptions to Rule 2

When the word ends in ce or ge, keep the silent e if the suffix begins with a or o.

Examples:

replace + able = replaceable

courage + ous = courageous

Rule 3

When the suffix begins with a consonant, keep the silent e in the original word.

Examples:

care + ful = careful

care + less = careless

Exceptions to Rule 3

Examples:

true + ly = truly

argue + ment = argument

Rule 4

When the word ends in a consonant plus y, change the y to i before any suffix not beginning with i.

Examples:

sunny + er = sunnier

hurry + ing = hurrying

Rule 5

When the suffix begins with a vowel, double the final consonant only if (1) the word has only one syllable or is accented on the last syllable and (2) the word ends in a single vowel followed by a single consonant.

Examples:

tan + ing = tanning (one syllable word)

regret + ing = regretting (The accent is on the last syllable; the word ends in a single vowel followed by a single consonant.)

cancel + ed = canceled (The accent is not on the last syllable.)

prefer + ed = preferred

Exercise

On your own sheet of paper, write correctly the forms of the words with their suffixes.

refer + ed

refer + ence

mope + ing

approve + al

green + ness

benefit + ed

resubmit + ing

use + age

greedy + ly

excite + ment

4.5 Synonyms and Antonyms

While refining your draft, it's crucial to scrutinize your word choices. Do they precisely convey your intended meaning? Is there room for improvement with more impactful words? Navigating the terrain of synonyms and antonyms can prove invaluable in addressing these considerations. Familiarity with alternative words and their opposites empowers you to select language that not only aligns more accurately with your intent but also enhances the overall effectiveness of your expression.

Synonyms

Synonyms, denoting words with comparable meanings, enhance linguistic versatility by offering varied expressions for conveying thoughts. For instance, one can interchangeably employ "easy" and "simple" to characterize a task, or use "large city" and "metropolis" interchangeably when describing Hong Kong. Nevertheless, it is imperative to recognize that not all word pairs in English seamlessly substitute for one another. The nuanced distinctions in meaning among synonyms can significantly impact the essence of your writing. Consider the pair "boring" and "insipid," which share a likeness in meaning but differ subtly. The choice between them influences the tone and message of your writing; "insipid" imparts a scholarly and perhaps more sophisticated nuance compared to the straightforwardness of "boring."

Throughout the English language, numerous word pairs harbor subtle differentiations. Authors, whether seasoned or novice, grapple with the task of selecting the most fitting synonym to aptly convey their ideas. A deliberate focus on synonyms in your writing resonates with your readers, rendering sentences clearer and imbued with richer meanings.

Writing at Work

Every professional piece of writing demands a meticulous selection of words. Take, for instance, composing an email to your employer about your income — you have the options of using terms like "pay," "salary," or "hourly wage." Beyond these, a plethora of other synonyms exists for you to consider. It's crucial to bear in mind that the specific word you opt for carries an impact on the reader. Therefore, your choice should be deliberate, aiming to elicit the desired effect from the reader.

Exercise

Replace the underlined words in the paragraph with appropriate synonyms. Write the new paragraph on your own sheet of paper.

When most people think of the Renaissance, they might think of artists like Michelangelo, Raphael, or Leonardo da Vinci, but they often overlook one of the very important figures of the Renaissance: Filippo Brunelleschi. Brunelleschi was born in Florence, Italy in 1377. He is considered the very best architect and engineer of the Renaissance. His impressive accomplishments are a testament to following one’s dreams, persevering in the face of obstacles, and realizing one’s vision.

The most difficult undertaking of Brunelleschi’s career was the dome of Florence Cathedral, which took sixteen years to construct. A major blow to the progress of the construction happened in 1428. Brunelleschi had designed a special ship to carry the one hundred tons of marble needed for the dome. He felt this would be the most inexpensive way to transport the marble, but the unthinkable happened. The ship went down to the bottom of the water, taking all the marble with it to the bottom of the river. Brunelleschi was really sad. Nevertheless, he did not give up. He held true to his vision of the completed dome. Filippo Brunelleschi completed construction of the dome of Florence Cathedral in 1446. His influence on artists and architects alike was felt strongly during his lifetime and can still be felt in this day and age.

Exercise

On your own sheet of paper, write a sentence with each of the following words that illustrates the specific meaning of each synonym.

leave, abandon

mad, insane

outside, exterior

poor, destitute

quiet, peaceful

riot, revolt

rude, impolite

talk, conversation

hug, embrace

home, residence

Antonyms

Antonyms are words that have the opposite meaning of a given word. The study of antonyms will not only help you choose the most appropriate word as you write; it will also sharpen your overall sense of language. The table below shows common antonyms and lists common words and their antonyms.

Acquiring knowledge of antonyms stands as a potent strategy for expanding your vocabulary. The act of memorizing words in conjunction with, or in contrast to, others frequently enhances retention.

Exercise

Correct the following sentences by replacing the underlined words with an antonym. Write the antonym on your own sheet of paper.

The pilot who landed the plane was a coward because no one was injured.

Even though the botany lecture was two hours long, Gerard found it incredibly dull.

My mother says it is impolite to say thank you like you really mean it.

Although I have learned a lot of information through textbooks, it is life experience that has given me ignorance.

When our instructor said the final paper was compulsory, it was music to my ears!

My only virtues are coffee, video games, and really loud music.

Elvin was so bold when he walked in the classroom that he sat in the back row and did not participate.

Maria thinks elephants who live in freedom have a sad look in their eyes.

The teacher filled her students’ minds with gloomy thoughts about their futures.

The guest attended to every one of our needs.

4.6 Using Context Clues

Context clues, integral components embedded within a text, serve as invaluable aids in unraveling the meanings of unfamiliar words. Given that a substantial portion of your vocabulary is cultivated through reading, honing the skill of recognizing context clues becomes paramount. By heightening your awareness of specific words and phrases surrounding a challenging term, you can engage in informed speculation about its meaning. The various types of context clues include:

Brief Definition or Restatement:

Within the text, a succinct explanation or rephrasing of the unfamiliar word aids in comprehension.

Synonyms and Antonyms:

Exploring words similar or opposite in meaning to the unknown term provides valuable contextual insights.

Examples:

Instances or illustrations within the text can illuminate the intended meaning of the unfamiliar word.

Brief Definition or Restatement

At times, a text overtly presents the definition or a reiteration of an unfamiliar word. This concise definition or restatement is often indicated by a specific word or punctuation mark. Take the following example for clarification:

If you visit Alaska, you will likely see many glaciers, or slow moving masses of ice.

In this sentence, the term "glaciers" finds its definition in the phrase that ensues the signal word "or," elucidating it as slow-moving masses of ice.

Alternatively, in certain cases, the text may choose to reiterate the word's meaning in a distinct manner, employing punctuation as a signaling device. Examine the following illustration:

Marina was indignant—fuming mad—when she discovered her brother had left for the party without her.

While "fuming mad" may not constitute a formal definition of the term "indignant," it effectively captures its essence. These examples employ signals—specifically, the word "or" and punctuation dashes—to convey the meaning of the unfamiliar word. Additionally, be attentive to signals such as "is," "as," "means," "known as," and "refers to" in your exploration of word meanings within a text.

Synonyms and Antonyms

Occasionally, a text provides a synonym for the unfamiliar word, serving as a signal to convey its meaning:

When you interpret an image, you actively question and examine what the image connotes and suggests.

In this sentence, the term "suggests" functions as a synonym for the word "connotes." The presence of the word "and" can often serve as a signal for synonyms.

Similarly, the word "but" may act as a cue for contrast, aiding in the definition of a word through its antonym.

I abhor clothes shopping, but I adore grocery shopping.

The term "abhor" is juxtaposed with its opposite, "adore." Within this context, the reader can infer that "abhor" conveys a strong dislike or aversion.

Examples

At times, a text provides an illustrative example of a word, offering clarity on its meaning:

I knew Mark’s ailurophobia was in full force because he began trembling and stuttering when he saw my cat, Ludwig, slink out from under the bed.

Even though "ailurophobia" is an unfamiliar term, the sentence furnishes an example of its effects. Drawing from this illustration, a reader could reasonably deduce that the word signifies a fear of cats.

Keep an eye out for signal words such as "such as," "for instance," and "for example." These indicators suggest that a word's meaning might be illuminated through the presentation of an example.

Exercise

Identify the context clue that helps define the underlined words in each of the following sentences. Write the context clue on your own sheet of paper.

Lucinda is very adroit on the balance beam, but Constance is rather clumsy.

I saw the entomologist, a scientist who studies insects, cradle the giant dung beetle in her palm.

Lance’s comments about politics were irrelevant and meaningless to the botanist’s lecture on plant reproduction.

Before I left for my trip to the Czech Republic, I listened to my mother’s sage advice and made a copy of my passport.

His rancor, or hatred, for socializing resulted in a life of loneliness and boredom.

Martin was mortified, way beyond embarrassment, when his friends teamed up to shove him into the pool.

The petulant four-year-old had a baby sister who was, on the contrary, not grouchy at all.

The philosophy teacher presented the students with several conundrums, or riddles, to solve.

Most Americans are omnivores, people that eat both plants and animals.

Elena is effervescent, as excited as a cheerleader, for example, when she meets someone for the first time.

On your own sheet of paper, write the name of the context clue that helps to define the underlined words.

Maggie was a precocious child to say the least. She produced brilliant watercolor paintings by the age of three. At first, her parents were flabbergasted—utterly blown away—by their daughter’s ability, but soon they got used to their little painter. Her preschool teacher said that Maggie’s dexterity, or ease with which she used her hands, was something she had never before seen in such a young child. Little Maggie never gloated or took pride in her paintings; she just smiled contentedly when she finished one and requested her parents give it to someone as a gift. Whenever people met Maggie for the first time they often watched her paint with their mouths agape, but her parents always kept their mouths closed and simply smiled over their “little Monet.”

Apart from relying on context clues to discern the meaning of a word, explore the various components of the word, including prefixes, roots, and suffixes.

Writing at Work

Jargon, a form of succinct communication commonly employed in professional settings, serves as the specialized language within a particular field. It functions as a kind of technical shorthand, streamlining communication among those familiar with its terms. For instance, envision your initiation as a server in a restaurant, where your manager casually mentions the decision to "eighty-six" the roasted chicken. Without understanding that "eighty-six" denotes removing an item from the menu, the communication might leave you perplexed.

In the early stages of any job, you are likely to encounter jargon that may initially seem unfamiliar. As you become more acclimated to your role, the use of this specialized language may become second nature. Nonetheless, during the initial phases of employment, jargon can be confounding and might make you feel like an outsider. If the context doesn't provide clarity, it's always advisable to seek clarification by asking for an explanation.

4.7 Working with Words: End-of-Chapter Exercises

Exercise

Proofread the paragraph and correct any commonly confused words and misspelled words.

Grunge, or the Seattle sound, is a type of rock music that became quiet popular in the late 1980s and early 1990s. It began in Seattle, Washington. Grunge musicians rejected the dramatic an expensive stage productions that were trendy at the time. There music was striped down with an emphasis on distorted electric guitars. Grunge musicians did not ware makeup or sport extravagent hairstyles like many of the day’s rock musicians and bands. Many grunge musicians would by they’re clothes from secondhand stores. The lyrics too grunge songs were also quit different compared two what was populer at the time. Grunge lyrics are charecterized by dark or socially conscience themes. Grunge music is still admired today buy music lovers of all ages.

Complete the following sentences by filling in the blank line with the correct homonym or frequently misspelled word.

a. Kevin asked me a serious question and ________(then, than) interrupted me when I attempted to answer.

b. A hot compress will ________(lessen, lesson) the pain of muscle cramps.

c. Jason was not a graceful ________(looser, loser) because he knocked his chair over and stormed off the basketball court.

d. Please consider the ________(effects, affects) of not getting enough green vegetables in your diet.

e. ________(Except, Accept) for Ajay, we all had our tickets to the play.

f. I am ________(threw, through) with this magazine, so you can read it if you like.

g. I don’t care ________(whose, who’s) coming to the party and ________(whose, who’s) not.

h. Crystal could ________(sea, see) the soaring hawk through her binoculars.

i. The ________(principal, principle) gave the students a very long lecture about peer pressure.

j. Dr. Frankl nearly lost his ________(patience, patients) with one of his ________(patience, patients).

Rewrite the following personal essay by replacing the slang, clichés, and overly general language with stronger, more precise language.

My biggest regret happened in high school. I had always felt like a fish out of water, so during my sophomore year I was determined to fit in with the cool people. Man, was that an uphill battle. I don’t even know why I tried, but hindsight is 20/20 I guess. The first thing I did was change the way I dressed. I went from wearing clothes I was comfortable in to wearing stuff that was so not me. Then I started wearing a ton of makeup, and my brother was all like, “What happened to your face?” Not only did my looks change, my personality changed a lot too. I started to act all stuck up and bossy with my friends, and they didn’t know how to respond to this person that used to be me. Luckily, this phase didn’t last more than a couple of months. I decided it was more fun to be me than to try to be someone else. I guess you can’t fit a square peg in a round hole after all.

Write the correct synonym for each word.

a. lenient ________(relaxed, callous)

b. abandon ________(vacate, deceive)

c. berate ________(criticize, encourage)

d. experienced ________(callow, matured)

e. spiteful ________(malevolent, mellow)

f. tame ________(subdued, wild)

g. tasty ________(savory, bland)

h. banal ________(common, interesting)

i. contradict ________(deny, revolt)

j. vain ________(boastful, simple)

Comparing and Contrasting (Part 1)

As you progress through your academic journey, you will likely encounter the task of composing a Compare and Contrast Essay. Whether delving into the outcomes of historical wars in a history class or scrutinizing different systems of government in a political science course, this essay type is commonplace in academia and holds practical relevance in the real world. However, many writers struggle with establishing a suitable framework for such essays. While future educators anticipate students to grasp the essay's structure, assessments at the college level often reveal difficulties in this area. In Unit 4, you will gain insights into effectively organizing a Compare and Contrast Essay, aligning with the expectations of college-level instruction.

One prevalent challenge with Compare and Contrast Essays arises from the often-misunderstood definition of this genre. While common descriptions label it as an essay highlighting the similarities and differences between two subjects, this definition oversimplifies the essay's purpose. The essence of a Compare and Contrast Essay extends beyond mere identification of similarities and differences; its primary function is to evaluate and analyze the subjects in depth. Rather than merely stating how topics align or differ, the essay aims to extract valuable insights through careful examination.

The confusion deepens when it comes to organizing such essays. Traditional approaches involve categorizing content into sections dedicated to similarities and differences. An example outline might include: I. Introduction II. Similarities between the topics III. Differences between the topics. However, this method of organization is not conducive to the standards expected at the college level.

On the subsequent page, you will find notes elucidating a more sophisticated organizational approach for a Compare and Contrast Essay. This refined structure facilitates the evaluation and analysis crucial for academic rigor and depth of understanding.

Comparing and Contrasting (Part 2)

After addressing the challenges associated with organizing Compare and Contrast Essays on the previous page, let's delve into the proper creation of an outline for this essay type in a college setting.

To grasp the organizational nuances, let's consider a hypothetical example: a comparison between Community Colleges and Universities. The initial step involves brainstorming elements for comparison, such as tuition, student/teacher ratio, majors, activities, scholarships, location, size, and teacher attitudes. From this list, select at least three key items for in-depth discussion. For this illustration, let's choose Cost, Size, and Teachers, grouping related points under each.

Now, constructing the essay's outline:

I. Introduction:

Topic: Introduce the subjects to be compared and contrasted.

Thesis: Present the central argument or, in the case of an inductive essay, delay the thesis until the conclusion.

Attention Grabber: Engage the reader's interest with a compelling statement.

Signposting: Provide a sentence outlining the main points of examination (Cost, Size, and Teachers).

Example:

"How would you like to save over $25,000 during the next four years? You can potentially save this much money by choosing the right school for your needs. When looking at the cost, size, and teachers between community colleges and universities, students who are undecided on a major can benefit and save money by choosing to go at least two years to a community college."

II. Community Colleges:

Cost: Discuss the specifics of community college costs.

Size: Explore the size characteristics of community colleges.

Teachers: Delve into the qualities of teachers at community colleges.

III. Universities:

Cost: Present details concerning university costs.

Size: Outline the size aspects of universities.

Teachers: Examine the attributes of university teachers.

IV. Conclusion:

Analyze and discuss the presented details.

Offer a thoughtful conclusion based on the information, potentially guiding the reader toward a choice between community colleges and universities.

The above outline follows the "Topic-by-Topic" pattern. Another viable approach is the "Item-by-Item" pattern:

I. Introduction:

Same as in the "Topic-by-Topic" pattern.

II. Cost:

Cost of Community Colleges.

Cost of Universities.

III. Size:

Size of Community Colleges.

Size of Universities.

IV. Teachers:

Teachers at Community Colleges.

Teachers at Universities.

V. Conclusion:

Same as in the "Topic-by-Topic" pattern.

Choose the organizational pattern that aligns with your comfort and the nature of your topics. Whether "Topic-by-Topic" or "Item-by-Item," the goal is to present a well-structured and insightful comparison. If you're presenting information inductively, consider whether to place the thesis in the introduction or conclusion, based on your instructor's guidance and your preferred style.

Comparing and Contrasting (Part 3)

Understanding the organizational process of writing a Compare and Contrast Essay reveals its sophistication, surpassing the mere juxtaposition of similarities and differences. The structured approaches of Topic-by-Topic or Item-by-Item open avenues beyond a mere comparison, enabling evaluation and analysis—an aspect highly sought after by educators when assigning such essays.

Consider the example of community colleges versus universities. A haphazard organization might result in a superficial list, lacking depth. Yet, employing the suggested patterns allows for a nuanced exploration of aspects like cost, size, and teaching staff. Such details, when elucidated, pave the way for meaningful insights and discussions, culminating in the concluding paragraphs.

For instance, after expounding on cost, size, and teachers, the essay might delve into a common adage: "you get what you pay for." While this saying often implies that lower prices equate to lower quality, the nuanced examination might reveal otherwise. Despite community colleges being more affordable, the essay may underscore the advantage of smaller classes, fostering personal connections between students and teachers. This personal touch could enhance the learning experience, creating a unique dynamic absent in larger universities.

Furthermore, the essay might unravel additional layers, such as the accountability factor in smaller classes and the dedicated focus of community college teachers on student interaction. The evaluation could challenge the notion that cost directly correlates with quality. It might suggest that, despite the economical aspect, community colleges can provide a quality education akin to universities, albeit with a different approach. The intricate details extracted through the essay's structure enable a comprehensive evaluation that extends beyond conventional assumptions.

In the final analysis, the essay could propose that while the adage "you get what you pay for" generally holds, it may not be universally applicable to community colleges. The tailored educational environment, characterized by smaller classes and a faculty primarily focused on teaching, challenges preconceived notions. However, the essay also recognizes the existing stereotype, indicating that community college students might need to exert additional effort to demonstrate the quality of their education.

This depth of evaluation and analysis, stemming from the meticulous exploration facilitated by Topic-by-Topic or Item-by-Item organization, transcends the surface-level comparison of similarities and differences. It embodies the essence of what educators seek—a thoughtful examination leading to insightful ideas, elevating the purpose of compare and contrast essays beyond the ordinary.

Compare and Contrast Essay Assignment

The purpose of the Compare and Contrast Assignment is to take two topics of your choice and write a 2 full-page Compare and Contrast Essay using the organization techniques (Topic-by-Topic or Item-by-Item) presented in Unit 4.

Here are the details:

Choose two topics of your choice to compare and contrast. You are not required to do any research for this essay, so this assignment encourages you to pick topics you know about so that you can use your knowledge to build the content of the essay. Below, there will be some examples of compare and contrast topics, but you may pick your own. Ask your instructor if you have difficulty finding topics.

 When you choose your topics, spend some time brainstorming to find three items you can compare between the two topics. The example here is how in the Unit 4 lecture notes we found the items of Cost, Size, and Teachers for our Community College and University essay. Again, the items you choose will decide what you would like your essay to focus on. Use your judgment of what you feel is most important to discuss between the two topics.

Decide whether to use the Topic-by-Topic pattern or the Item-by-Item pattern. Either pattern is valid, so use the one you are most comfortable with. When you decide on your pattern, create an Outline as we did in the Unit 4 notes for Community Colleges and Universities.

Be sure that your essay has an introduction that has the four points listed in the lecture notes, not necessarily in the order given in the notes: Topic, Thesis, Attention Grabber, Signposting. (Note, if you decide to write the essay inductively by not having the thesis in the introduction but in the conclusion, that is acceptable, so in place of the thesis in the introduction, you may ask a question and/or explain the purpose of the essay).

With your outline, you will write the essay filling in all the details for each point in the outline.

Be sure to have a conclusion where you evaluate and analyze the topics. This conclusion could be more than one paragraph, and you will likely develop it after writing all the other points of the essay. Part 3 of the Unit 4 notes show how the essay evaluated and analyzed the two types of schools to question the saying "you get what you pay for."

Include a title for the essay.

Read over the essay several times to see if you need to make any revisions. Also, proofread the essay to make corrections. It is a good idea to let at least one other person read your essay for revision and proofreading. Your reader could be a friend or family member, or it could even be someone you connect with in class. It is fine to get together with a classmate to e-mail essays back in forth for proofreading and revision.

Essay Guidelines:

All essays must be typed, double spaced, in Times New Roman font, 12 point

This paper is to be a minimum of two pages.

You can select either APA or MLA formatting style when completing this essay assignment. Please refer to the Formatting Exercise in Unit One for how to set up your assignment in either style. Remember, with APA style, you must include a title page with your assignment. The title page will not count towards the two required pages of content that you are expected to submit for this essay assignment.

You are expected to use proper grammar and mechanics — refer to a grammar guide as needed.

Basic Punctuation Rules

Ideas for Compare and Contrast Essays

As the instructions above say, you may write your compare and contrast essay on any two topics you choose. However, here are some ideas. These are based on essays the instructor writing this page has seen over the years and ideas from when that same instructor was a student and had to write this type of essay.

Online Classes vs. On-Campus Classes

High School vs. College

Renting vs. Buying a House

After High School: Attending College vs. Going to Work Full-Time

Summer vs. Winter (or Fall vs. Spring)

Dogs vs. Cats

Movies vs. Books

Two Books compared against each other (or two t.v. shows or two movies compared against each other)

Standard Transmissions vs. Automatic Transmissions

Sons vs. Daughters

Two court cases (writer of this page had to compare two court cases in political science class)

Two different historical events (World War II vs. Civil War)

Playing Guitar vs Playing Bass

Two Restaurants compared against each other

Two Branches of Government (Legislative Branch vs. Judicial Branch)

Two Different Decades (1970's vs. 2010's)

Two Periods of Your Life (teenage years vs. young adult years)

You can see there are many different ideas for this essay. You may use any of these ideas or modify them in any way. It is okay to pick completely new topics. It is amazing some of the creative ideas students have come up with, and the evaluations and analysis to come out of the essays has been fascinating.

Compare and Contrast Essay Assignment

Today we are going to compare and contrast two topics that are regularly fought over by different people. Comparing console gaming verse's computer gaming. To start off with let’s take console gaming in order to play any console games we need to buy the system and this can be quite pricey on average it can cost anywhere from $300 to $600 dollars and that’s not including when there’s a shortage of consoles like we saw more recently. We also need to consider a TV is required but we can use an existing TV for that task so it shouldn’t theoretically cost us extra unless we are making our own game room specific. Then each game costs us $40 to $70 if we consider possible sales and also tax. A new dynamic too is some games even though they cost money require download instead and if we have data caps it can run extra money to download but usually that doesn’t affect us in the US like it does overseas since most ISP’s provide unlimited data. 

Games really only last for 70 to 150 hours on the average RPG game but some games have replay ability as well. Some console games are unique to only console so some people don’t have the option to play them on other systems. But that opens up a dynamic to cause some Xbox games aren’t purchasable on PlayStation and some Nintendo games are only unique to Nintendo. That means needing to purchase different consoles to play different franchises which means we are running back into the money again. 

A new dynamic to console games is being able to play them cross platform but with console games versus non console there’s a painful unfair advantage against console gamers. But console gamers also have a more secure environment online since hacking console games isn’t an easy task and the most people can do is something called “lag switching” which involves shutting connection off when your about to be hit by a bullet or die to make it miss you. 

Now that we explained some of the details about console games, we can do the same for computer games. When it comes to computer games, we do require a computer and our most important parts is our processor, ram, and the video card since all of our games require those specific details. We can also consider having an SSD or “solid state drive” to speed up the time to load from screen to screen inside of the game as important but it's not the end of the world if we don’t have one. Good computers will cost quite a lot more than a console. I just built a brand-new computer and I had some of the parts like the extra SSD’s and it costed around $3,500 but with the video card shortage that was the most expensive part. Now that video cards are more easily obtained unless you’re buying a 4090 that just came out you can pick up a 30’s series reasonable. But let’s just say we spent $4k on a brand-new computer. What most people don’t know is we now have a computer that can play any game for the next at least 5 years even all the top end games. Maybe even longer if we don’t care about small drop-in frame rates. Processor in pc being i5, i7 or 8 cores doesn’t even help us. Most computer games don’t even take advantage of more than 1 core and at most make use of 2 cores so buying a server with 20 cores doesn’t help us play games faster. 

Now that we know about the system let's look at the games. On computer we have access to a wide range of free games that don’t cost us money at all. That’s not even including pirated copies of games which we won’t really look at since that is more on the gray side of what you should do with a computer. But we can play some really good free titles that just have in game shops but don’t require any purchases at all from SRPG’s to RPG’s to MMORPG’s to ARPG’s and the list goes on and on. We still have access to a lot of the games that console has while it might not be every title most of them do come out. And often we can buy them at a more discounted price or we can wait for sales on steam. 

Speaking of steam, we also can look at Epic Games which offers free paid versions of games once a week. And they often give top titles such as Borderlands 3 and Tomb Raider and all sorts of games. That can be $60 game which doesn’t cost anything. Overall, the experience is just better when it comes to getting games for computer since you have so many resources to either get cheap or free games you don’t have to spend a lot on that side. 

But on a negative side the hacking part people can hack in games easily in first person shooters they can create extrasensory perception hacks that allow people to be viewed through walls they can create aim-bots to always get a headshot, or wall hacks that allow shooting through walls. For the MMORPG games they can make teleport hacks, duping hacks to copy items, they can make farming bots, they can make speed hacks. And its much easier to get around anti-cheat programs then most people might think. But that can ruin players experience in the games often when playing with others.

Computer gamers also are the ones that see a big advantage against cross-play games. In cross-play vs Xbox players take for example a game like Fortnite a computer player has better graphics and with a wide screen and a good video card can see twice the distance as a console player which is better for sniping from ranges of 200 meters or greater. Often times console players call that hacks but it’s just because consoles have a limit for view distance and graphics and computer players can play at 250 frames per second while console is often capped at 30-60. 

Another area is controller while people might think is really easy to use really isn’t easy in a cross platform because to turn completely around it takes a couple seconds on a controller. While on computer with a keyboard and mouse it can be done really fast so console gamers end up getting killed to computer players just because of the delay in movement. And gaming mice for computers come with different key binds, rapid fire buttons and often also have sensitivity settings for sniping modes which help slow aim down to make when you’re sniping much easier to hit targets. 

Between console and computer games you have a lot of pros and cons for both and at the end of the day you’ll decide what you want to play with. I stopped buying consoles with PlayStation 2 but for years I played free online MMORPG’s that didn’t require anything complicated. But it doesn’t mean that console isn’t fun for some people or you should only stick to one people play based on likes and dislikes and this is why we have different decisions.  

Research Paper Introduction (Part 1)

While the deadline for this assignment is not imminent, its significance, demanding more effort and time, prompts its introduction in this early unit of the semester. The actual assignment details can be found in Unit 7, but this page serves as a precursor, offering insights into the research paper you'll be crafting.

Outlined below are the general guidelines for the Research Paper due in Unit 7:

Length: The research paper should be at least 6 pages long, excluding the title page (if using APA style) and the Works Cited/References page at the end. Consult your instructor if you wish to exceed this limit, as allowances may vary.

Formatting Styles: You can choose either APA or MLA formatting style for this assignment. Subsequent units will provide guidance on References/Works Cited pages and parenthetical in-text citations.

Topic Guidance: Your instructor will provide guidance on the essay's topic. The level of freedom in choosing topics may vary among instructors, so seek clarification if needed.

Thesis Requirement: The paper must have a thesis to maintain focus and organization. Unit 3 will guide you on developing and using the thesis for organizational purposes.

Source Requirement: Utilize a minimum of 4 outside sources, with at least half being non-internet sources. Non-internet sources include general web pages from search engines like Google or Yahoo. Library sources accessed online, such as OhioLINK and EGCC Gateway, as well as Google Scholar, are acceptable.

Visual Aid: Incorporate a visual aid (e.g., picture, graphic, table, chart) in the research paper. This visual should not exceed half a page within the six-page requirement. Properly credit the source of the visual aid.

This assignment, though scheduled for Unit 7, merits early attention due to its comprehensive nature. Familiarizing yourself with these guidelines and the impending requirements will contribute to a more prepared and successful completion of the research paper.

Research Paper Introduction (Part 2)

Many students breeze through smaller essays like the Organization Essay and Compare/Contrast Essay, only to find themselves hitting a roadblock when it comes to the Research Paper. The intimidation and fear associated with research papers often hinder success in writing the ENG101 Research Paper.

Here's some advice to ease into the process. First, consider the research paper as a parallel process to the smaller formal essays in the class. The key distinction lies in relying on external sources (research) to support the thesis, as opposed to drawing solely from personal knowledge. Beyond this, research papers tend to be longer, require source crediting (citing), and often demand a more formal writing style.

For instance, in Units 3 and 4, examples were provided on constructing essays. Take the "older dogs" thesis as an example. Initially, the student could write two pages based on personal knowledge. However, transforming it into a research paper involves using sources to illustrate the loyalty, obedience, etc., of older dogs. Similarly, the sample comparison between community colleges and universities could be tackled based on personal knowledge, but it can evolve into a research paper by delving into sources addressing cost, size, and teacher-related issues between the schools.

With this perspective, here's the process we'll follow for the Research Paper in this class: finding the topic and thesis, exploring and evaluating sources, and learning how to credit (cite) external information within the research paper.

The first step involves finding the topic and thesis, following your instructor's guidelines. Some instructors provide freedom in choosing topics, while others may limit choices. Your instructor will clarify expectations, but if uncertain, seek guidance.

In this Unit, you'll decide on your topic, ensuring it's sufficiently focused. Additionally, consider crafting a thesis using our formula: Topic + A Claim About The Topic = Thesis. An assignment in this unit involves writing a proposal for your research topic, allowing the instructor to provide valuable feedback.

Unit 5 will cover finding sources for the research paper. While lecture notes will be limited, references to the online text and external resources will guide you. Pay close attention to the referred pages in our text and explore the recommended outside resources in Unit 6 for proper citation.

To initiate this process, read Chapter 12.1 in our online text, "Creating a Rough Draft for a Research Paper." This comprehensive overview covers various aspects of this assignment. You don't need to complete the exercises; just absorb the information for a better understanding of the research paper's procedural intricacies. 

12.1 Creating a Rough Draft for a Research Paper

Finally, the moment has arrived to embark on crafting the rough draft of your research paper. Translating your thoughts and research into words is an exhilarating endeavor, albeit one that comes with its own set of challenges. In this section, we will delve into strategies to navigate the more intricate aspects of research paper writing, including seamlessly integrating material from your sources, ensuring accurate citation of information, and steering clear of any inadvertent misuse of your sources.

The Structure of a Research Paper

Research papers typically adhere to a fundamental structure comprising an introduction, a body section, and a conclusion. The introduction serves to present the writer's thesis, while the body expounds on the thesis through supporting points and evidence. Finally, the conclusion revisits the thesis and offers additional insights or suggestions for further research.

Your writing voice exerts its strongest influence in the introduction and conclusion, where you aim to captivate your readers' interest and firmly establish your thesis. These sections generally steer clear of extensive source citation, prioritizing the broader context over specific details. On the contrary, the body of your paper extensively cites sources. As you articulate your ideas, each point finds reinforcement in the details gleaned from your research. This careful integration of sources bolsters the credibility and depth of your argument.

Writing Your Introduction

Introducing your research paper can take various approaches, each geared towards achieving similar objectives. An effective introduction must capture readers' attention, provide necessary background information, and present the writer's thesis. Many writers opt for engaging openers, such as:

A surprising fact

A thought-provoking question

An attention-getting quote

A brief anecdote illustrating a larger concept

A connection between your topic and your readers' experiences

Following these attention-grabbing techniques, the subsequent sentences contextualize the opening by offering background information. Gradually, the writer builds towards the thesis, conventionally positioned at the conclusion of the introduction. Think of your thesis as a signpost, clearly indicating the direction your paper will take.

For example, Jorge chose to commence his research paper by establishing a connection between his topic and readers' daily experiences. In the initial draft of his introduction, the underlined portion represents his thesis. Observe how Jorge seamlessly progresses from the opening sentences to background information, culminating in the clear articulation of his thesis. This strategic development helps guide readers effectively through the trajectory of his paper.

Beyond the Hype: Evaluating Low-Carb Diets

I. Introduction

In the past decade, there has been a notable surge in Americans embracing the low-carb lifestyle. Recent studies suggest that around 40 million Americans, roughly 20 percent of the population, are actively curbing their consumption of high-carb foods (Sanders and Katz, 2004; Hirsch, 2004). Advocates of low-carb diets not only tout their effectiveness in weight loss but also claim health advantages, including reduced blood pressure and improved cholesterol levels. Contrarily, certain medical professionals argue that low-carb diets are overhyped and caution about the unknown long-term effects. While adopting a low-carbohydrate diet may prove beneficial for some, it's crucial to acknowledge that these diets may not be the optimal choice for everyone seeking weight loss or improved health.

Exercise

Write the introductory paragraph of your research paper. Try using one of the techniques listed in this section to write an engaging introduction. Be sure to include background information about the topic that leads to your thesis.

Many writers follow a non-linear approach when crafting a research paper. If you encounter difficulties in composing a compelling introduction, consider starting with the body of your paper. By tackling the body sections first, you can refine and clarify your main points. Subsequently, writing the introduction becomes a more manageable task. Having drafted portions or the entirety of the body equips you with a better understanding of how to effectively introduce your paper. This sequential process often results in a more coherent and engaging introduction.

Writing Your Conclusion

In crafting your introduction, you guide readers toward the destination of your paper. Conversely, the conclusion serves as a recap of the journey they've just undertaken. Some writers find it effective to write their conclusions soon after the introduction, aligning the two components seamlessly. However, this approach may not suit everyone. Alternatively, some writers prefer to reserve the conclusion for the end of the paper, after addressing the body paragraphs. There is no one-size-fits-all process; the key is finding the approach that aligns best with your writing style.

Regardless of when you choose to compose the conclusion, its primary function is to encapsulate your main ideas and revisit your thesis. A well-crafted conclusion goes beyond echoing the introduction or relying on generic summary statements like "In this paper, I have demonstrated that...". It is advisable to avoid replicating your thesis verbatim from the introduction. Instead, restate it using different wording that reflects the fresh perspective gained through your research. This approach keeps your ideas dynamic and engaging for your readers. An effective writer might conclude a paper by posing a new question inspired by the research, revisiting an earlier anecdote, or reminding readers of the relevance of the topic to their lives.

Writing at Work

For those engaged in writing or perusing scientific papers, a comprehensive grasp of how professional researchers employ the structure outlined in this section proves invaluable. The scientific paper typically commences with an abstract, offering a succinct overview of the entire paper. Following this, the introduction elucidates the research's purpose, provides a brief synopsis of preceding studies, and propounds the researchers' hypothesis. The body of the paper furnishes intricate details about the study, encompassing participant information, measurement parameters, and recorded results. Ultimately, the conclusion encapsulates the researchers' interpretation of the data, essentially presenting their findings and insights gleaned from the study.

Using Source Material in Your Paper

One of the inherent challenges in crafting a research paper lies in the artful integration of personal ideas with sourced material. Striking the right balance is crucial — your paper should not read like a disjointed sequence of facts and quotes, nor should it rely solely on your ideas without robust research support. Achieving this equilibrium requires a thoughtful approach.

Initiating this balance is your introduction, a crucial step that functions as the frame around a picture. It defines and confines your topic, placing your research within a broader context and providing the structure for your entire paper.

As you delve into the body paragraphs, precision in integrating ideas becomes paramount both at the paragraph and sentence levels. Utilize topic sentences to elucidate the significance of any facts, details, or quotations you incorporate, ensuring readers comprehend their relevance. Seamless transitions between ideas, whether within a paragraph or spanning paragraphs, will further enhance the cohesiveness of your paper.

At the sentence level, meticulous consideration is needed for introducing paraphrased and quoted material. Recall the techniques of summarizing, paraphrasing, and quoting learned during note-taking. In the upcoming sections, you'll delve into how to adeptly employ these methods in the body of your paper, skillfully weaving source material to fortify and substantiate your ideas.

Summarizing Sources

Summarizing material from a source involves honing in on the primary points and expressing them succinctly in your own words. This technique proves beneficial when only the key ideas are pertinent to your paper or when you need to distill intricate information into a few pivotal points for your readers.

A crucial aspect of summarization is a thorough review of the source material. The aim is to identify the central idea and rephrase it as succinctly as possible, ideally in a single sentence. Depending on your objective, you might include an additional sentence or two to encapsulate any vital details or examples. To ensure accuracy and completeness, it is imperative to scrutinize your summary.

In an illustrative example, Jorge employed this technique to summarize research materials elucidating scientists' findings on low-carbohydrate diets. The excerpt below, taken from a trade magazine article, juxtaposes Jorge's adept summary of the article:

Original Article Passage:

"As scientists delve into the impacts of low-carbohydrate diets, a consensus emerges on their efficacy for weight loss. Studies reveal that reducing carbohydrate intake not only leads to significant weight loss but also improves various cardiovascular markers."

Jorge's Summary:

"Research on low-carbohydrate diets indicates a consensus among scientists regarding their effectiveness in weight loss. The studies suggest that reducing carbohydrate intake not only results in substantial weight loss but also enhances various cardiovascular markers."

Assessing the Efficacy of Low-Carbohydrate Diets

Adrienne Howell, Ph.D.

Over the past few years, a number of clinical studies have explored whether high-protein, low-carbohydrate diets are more effective for weight loss than other frequently recommended diet plans, such as diets that drastically curtail fat intake (Pritikin) or that emphasize consuming lean meats, grains, vegetables, and a moderate amount of unsaturated fats (the Mediterranean diet). A 2009 study found that obese teenagers who followed a low-carbohydrate diet lost an average of 15.6 kilograms over a six-month period, whereas teenagers following a low-fat diet or a Mediterranean diet lost an average of 11.1 kilograms and 9.3 kilograms respectively. Two 2010 studies that measured weight loss for obese adults following these same three diet plans found similar results. Over three months, subjects on the low-carbohydrate diet plan lost anywhere from four to six kilograms more than subjects who followed other diet plans.

Summary

In three recent studies, researchers compared outcomes for obese subjects who followed either a low-carbohydrate diet, a low-fat diet, or a Mediterranean diet and found that subjects following a low-carbohydrate diet lost more weight in the same time (Howell, 2010).

A summary involves articulating ideas in your own words, yet for specialized or clinical terms, it's essential to adhere to the terminology employed in the original source. Jorge's use of the term "obese" in his summary is a prime example, demonstrating the necessity to retain specific clinical terms when alternative expressions like "heavy" or "overweight" may carry distinct clinical implications. This ensures precision and consistency in conveying the nuanced meanings of specialized language within the context of the original source material.

Exercise

On a separate sheet of paper, practice summarizing by writing a one-sentence summary of the same passage that Jorge already summarized.

Paraphrasing Sources

Paraphrasing material from a source involves rephrasing information from an entire sentence or passage in your own words, maintaining your unique sentence structure. Unlike summarization, paraphrasing focuses on restating ideas rather than condensing them.

It is crucial to scrutinize your paraphrase against the source material to guarantee both accuracy and originality. A common pitfall for inexperienced writers is the "thesaurus method" of paraphrasing, where they essentially rewrite the source material by substituting most words with synonyms. This practice amounts to a misuse of sources. A bona fide paraphrase entails restating ideas using the writer's individual language and style.

In Jorge's draft, he frequently engaged in paraphrasing details from sources. There were instances where he had to revise a sentence multiple times to ensure the accurate paraphrasing of ideas. The passage below is extracted from a website, followed by Jorge's initial attempt at paraphrasing and the final version of his paraphrase.

Original Website Passage:

"As researchers explore the impact of low-carbohydrate diets, a consensus is emerging regarding their effectiveness for weight loss. Evidence suggests that decreasing carbohydrate intake not only leads to substantial weight loss but also positively influences various cardiovascular indicators."

Jorge's Initial Paraphrase:

"As scientists investigate the consequences of low-carb diets, there is a growing agreement about their efficacy in losing weight. Indications propose that reducing carbohydrate consumption not only results in significant weight loss but also has a positive impact on diverse cardiovascular markers."

Jorge's Final Paraphrase:

"As researchers delve into the effects of low-carbohydrate diets, there is a consensus emerging about their effectiveness in weight loss. Evidence indicates that reducing carbohydrate intake not only leads to significant weight loss but also positively impacts various cardiovascular indicators."

Source

Dieters nearly always get great results soon after they begin following a low-carbohydrate diet, but these results tend to taper off after the first few months, particularly because many dieters find it difficult to follow a low-carbohydrate diet plan consistently.

Summary

People usually see encouraging outcomes shortly after they go on a low-carbohydrate diet, but their progress slows down after a short while, especially because most discover that it is a challenge to adhere to the diet strictly (Heinz, 2009).

Upon reviewing the initially paraphrased sentence, Jorge discerned that he had adhered too closely to the original source. As he aimed to avoid quoting the entire passage verbatim, he made a concerted effort to once again restate the idea in a manner more reflective of his own writing style.

Summary

Because it is hard for dieters to stick to a low-carbohydrate eating plan, the initial success of these diets is short-lived (Heinz, 2009).

Exercise

On a separate sheet of paper, follow these steps to practice paraphrasing.

Choose an important idea or detail from your notes.

Without looking at the original source, restate the idea in your own words.

Check your paraphrase against the original text in the source. Make sure both your language and your sentence structure are original.

Revise your paraphrase if necessary.

Quoting Sources Directly

In most instances, summarizing or paraphrasing source material rather than quoting directly is preferred. This approach demonstrates a thorough understanding of the research, allowing you to confidently articulate the ideas in your own words. However, there are moments when direct quotes can be potent if used judiciously and with intention.

Direct quotations can add color and emphasis, particularly when an author's words are vivid, memorable, or exceptionally well-phrased. Incorporating direct quotes from interviews or eyewitness accounts can personalize an issue for readers. Moreover, when analyzing primary sources like historical speeches or literary works, extensive quoting may be necessary to illustrate key points. While valid, it's essential to use quotations sparingly for maximum impact.

Less experienced writers may tend to overuse direct quotations as it might seem easier than paraphrasing. However, excessive use diminishes their effectiveness and may result in a paper that appears hastily assembled from external sources. To enhance impact, opt for judicious use of quotations.

When employing direct quotes, adhere to these guidelines:

Ensure accurate transcription of the original statement.

Represent the author's ideas faithfully by quoting enough of the original text to convey the intended point.

Never present a stand-alone quotation; seamlessly integrate quoted material into your own sentence.

Use ellipses (...) for omitted words or phrases, and brackets [] to substitute words or phrases.

Ensure that any omissions or alterations do not distort the original meaning. Only omit or replace words when necessary for brevity or grammatical correctness.

Include correctly formatted citations following the designated style guide.

In Jorge's research, he interviewed a dietician and opted to quote her words in his paper. An excerpt from the interview is provided, along with Jorge's utilization of the quote.

Source

Personally, I don’t really buy into all of the hype about low-carbohydrate miracle diets like Atkins and so on. Sure, for some people, they are great, but for most, any sensible eating and exercise plan would work just as well.

Summary

Registered dietician Dana Kwon (2010) admits, “Personally, I don’t really buy into all of the hype.…Sure, for some people, [low-carbohydrate diets] are great, but for most, any sensible eating and exercise plan would work just as well.”

Indeed, Jorge exhibits a skillful integration of quoted material by commencing the sentence with an introductory phrase. Notably, his use of ellipses and brackets serves the purpose without altering the original meaning conveyed by the source. This adept handling of quotations contributes to the seamless flow of the text, ensuring that the quoted material harmonizes seamlessly with Jorge's own writing.

Documenting Source Material

Throughout the writing process, it is imperative to be meticulous in documenting information sourced from external references. This practice serves a dual purpose:

Giving credit to other writers or researchers for their ideas: Acknowledging the intellectual contributions of others is an ethical practice that underscores academic integrity.

Enabling your reader to pursue further insights on the topic: Proper documentation empowers your audience to delve deeper into the subject matter if they wish to explore additional resources.

In your paper, citations should be incorporated within the body, attributing credit to the respective sources. Additionally, a comprehensive bibliography at the end of the paper is essential for a thorough understanding of the research landscape. This assignment mandates the use of the American Psychological Association (APA) citation format. 

Citing Sources in the Body of Your Paper

In-text citations serve as crucial documentation within the body of your paper, comprising two essential components: the author's name and the publication year of the source material. In the case of quoting from a print source, it's imperative to include the page number where the quoted material originally appears in the citation, with the page number following the publication year. It's important to note that page numbers are only necessary when directly quoting content, not when summarizing or paraphrasing.

This information can be seamlessly integrated into your paragraph, either as part of the introduction to the material or as a parenthetical citation at the end of a sentence. The following examples illustrate how this is done. 

Summary

Leibowitz (2008) found that low-carbohydrate diets often helped subjects with Type II diabetes maintain a healthy weight and control blood-sugar levels.

The introduction to the source material adeptly features the author's name, enclosed in parentheses, and is succeeded by the year of publication. This format ensures a clear and concise presentation of the essential information within the introductory context.

Summary

Low-carbohydrate diets often help subjects with Type II diabetes maintain a healthy weight and control blood-sugar levels (Leibowitz, 2008).

The parenthetical citation positioned at the end of the sentence masterfully incorporates the author's name, followed by a comma, and culminates with the publication year enclosed in parentheses. Significantly, the period at the conclusion of the sentence appropriately follows the closing parentheses, adhering to the established citation format.

Creating a List of References

Every source cited in the body text finds its place in a comprehensive references list at the conclusion of your paper. While in-text citations offer fundamental information about the source, the references section provides additional publication details. Generally, this section includes the following information:

The author's last name followed by their first (and possibly middle) initial.

The year of publication.

The title of the source.

For articles in periodicals, you should also include:

The full name of the periodical.

The volume and issue number.

The pages where the article is located.

Additional details may be necessary for diverse sources, such as online resources. 

Using Primary and Secondary Research

As you craft your initial draft, it's crucial to conscientiously consider the integration of primary and secondary source material to bolster your arguments. Primary sources offer firsthand information, providing direct insight into the subject matter. On the other hand, secondary sources, being one degree removed from primary information, encapsulate an author's analysis or interpretation of these primary materials.

The art lies in delicately balancing the utilization of primary and secondary sources throughout your paper, a balance contingent upon both the nature of your topic and the specific requirements of your assignment. Striking this equilibrium is pivotal as it determines the depth and breadth of your research-backed narrative.

To enhance the efficacy of your writing, ensure that primary sources are strategically employed to establish a foundation of authenticity and immediacy. Incorporate these sources where firsthand evidence is paramount, allowing readers to engage directly with the raw, unmediated information.

Conversely, secondary sources should be judiciously woven into your narrative to provide insightful perspectives, interpretations, and analyses. These sources serve to enrich your arguments by offering a broader context and deeper understanding derived from the expertise of other scholars.

In navigating this delicate dance between primary and secondary sources, remember that the ultimate goal is to construct a cohesive and compelling narrative. Each source type should complement the other, creating a harmonious interplay that strengthens your overall argument.

Maintaining this equilibrium not only demonstrates a nuanced understanding of your subject matter but also underscores the meticulousness of your research methodology. As you refine your draft, be attentive to the symbiotic relationship between primary and secondary sources, ensuring that their interplay elevates the intellectual rigor and persuasiveness of your work.

Using Primary Sources Effectively

Certain categories of research papers necessitate an extensive reliance on primary sources to fulfill their objectives. Papers involved in the analysis of primary texts or those presenting the writer's experimental research distinctly fall within this domain. The following instances illustrate this requirement:

Literature Course Paper:

Example: A paper scrutinizing several poems by Emily Dickinson for a literature course.

Political Science Course Paper:

Example: A paper in a political science course comparing televised speeches of two presidential candidates.

Communications Course Paper:

Example: A paper for a communications course delving into gender biases in television commercials.

Business Administration Course Paper:

Example: A paper addressing the results of a survey conducted by the writer with local businesses, exploring work-from-home and flextime policies for a business administration course.

Elementary Education Course Paper:

Example: A paper discussing the outcomes of an experiment conducted by the writer, comparing the effectiveness of two different methods of mathematics instruction for an elementary education course.

In these specific contexts, primary research takes center stage. When analyzing a work—whether it's a literary piece, a movie, or a painting—it becomes imperative to extract information and insights directly from the original source. This approach ensures that the paper is grounded in the primary material itself, rather than relying solely on the interpretations of others.

Moreover, if you invest the time and effort to design and execute your own field research, such as a survey, interviews, or an experiment, it becomes crucial to articulate these methodologies in detail. For instance, discussions around interviews can unearth compelling responses that you may wish to share with your reader, enriching the narrative with firsthand accounts and perspectives. In essence, the thorough incorporation of primary sources not only strengthens the authenticity of your work but also elevates the depth and credibility of your research efforts.

Using Secondary Sources Effectively

In certain assignments, a strategic emphasis on secondary sources over primary ones is not only justified but also essential. This approach is particularly relevant when the task at hand does not involve the analysis of a specific text or the execution of original field research. In such instances, a reliance on well-curated secondary sources becomes integral.

It is advisable to prioritize secondary sources that maintain a close association with primary research. Examples include journal articles elucidating the outcomes of scientific studies or books referencing interviews and case studies. Such sources offer a higher degree of reliability and contribute more substantively to your paper compared to those that are more distantly connected to primary research. Take, for instance, a popular magazine article on junk-food addiction, which might be several degrees removed from the original scientific study it vaguely references. Consequently, this article could potentially distort, sensationalize, or misinterpret the scientists' findings.

Even if your paper predominantly draws from primary sources, integrating secondary sources into your work can enhance the development of your ideas. Consider, for example, an analysis of Alfred Hitchcock's films, which primarily focuses on the films themselves as primary sources but may also incorporate commentary from critics to enrich the discussion. Similarly, a paper presenting an original experiment might include a discussion of prior research in the field to provide context and support for its findings.

In Jorge's case, where time, resources, and experience precluded the undertaking of original experimental research, a conscious decision to rely on secondary sources was made. Importantly, Jorge ensured that the secondary sources he cited were not far removed from primary research, emphasizing the importance of maintaining a close connection between the sources and the original research to uphold the credibility and accuracy of his ideas.

The classification of sources as either primary or secondary can be fluid, contingent upon the writer's intent and purpose for utilizing them. Consider, for instance, the No Child Left Behind legislation and its impact on elementary education:

Secondary Source Usage:

If the writer's goal is to inform readers about how the No Child Left Behind legislation has influenced elementary education, a Time magazine article on the subject would be considered a secondary source. Here, Time serves as a conduit for information and analysis rather than directly presenting firsthand accounts.

Primary Source Usage:

Conversely, if the writer's objective is to scrutinize how the news media has depicted the effects of the No Child Left Behind legislation, articles about the legislation in news magazines such as Time, Newsweek, and US News & World Report transform into primary sources. In this context, these articles become firsthand examples of the media coverage that the writer is analyzing, offering direct insight into the portrayal of the legislation by the news media.

This dynamic illustrates how the designation of a source as primary or secondary hinges on the writer's specific purpose. A source's role can shift based on whether it is providing original information and firsthand accounts or serving as a vehicle for analysis and interpretation. Therefore, a nuanced understanding of the writer's objectives is essential for accurately classifying and utilizing sources in research or analysis.

Avoiding Plagiarism

In crafting your research paper, you are essentially presenting your own perspective on a particular topic, fortified and expanded upon by the insights and information derived from the work of others. Throughout the research process, during the planning stages, and in the act of writing itself, it is imperative to consistently differentiate between your original thoughts and the ideas borrowed from external sources. Failing to make this distinction can result in plagiarism, a serious academic offense.

As you engage in research, meticulously discern between your own insights and the contributions of others. This discernment is not only an ethical imperative but also crucial for maintaining the integrity of your work. Your paper should be a synthesis of your understanding, seamlessly interwoven with the ideas, evidence, and perspectives gleaned from external sources.

During the planning phase, consciously outline how your unique perspective integrates with the information you've gathered. Develop a clear roadmap that delineates where your voice predominates and where you defer to the contributions of others. This foresight aids in crafting a cohesive and original narrative that respects the intellectual contributions of all sources involved.

When actually writing your paper, be vigilant in attributing ideas to their rightful sources. Accurate citation is not just a formality; it is a manifestation of academic integrity. Clearly signal when you are presenting your own thoughts and when you are drawing upon external material. This clarity not only prevents plagiarism but also enhances the credibility of your paper by showcasing a rigorous engagement with a spectrum of perspectives.

In summary, the success of your research paper hinges on the artful balance between your own ideas and the insights of others. By maintaining this balance with precision and integrity, you not only uphold academic standards but also contribute to the richness and authenticity of academic discourse.

Intentional and Accidental Plagiarism

Plagiarism constitutes the unethical act of presenting someone else's work as one's own. While some instances are deliberate, such as purchasing an essay online and submitting it as original coursework, others may occur inadvertently due to carelessness, haste, or a misunderstanding of proper attribution. To sidestep unintentional plagiarism, adhere to these guidelines:

Comprehensive Understanding of Citation Requirements:

Grasp the types of information that necessitate citation. Whether it's direct quotes, paraphrased content, or specific ideas, recognizing what requires acknowledgment is fundamental to maintaining academic integrity.

Appreciation of Fair Use Principles:

Discern what constitutes fair use of a source. Being aware of the boundaries of fair use helps you appropriately incorporate and credit the ideas and information you draw from external sources.

Meticulous Organization of Source Materials and Notes:

Keep your source materials and notes meticulously organized. A systematic approach ensures that you can trace and credit the origins of your information accurately. This not only facilitates proper citation but also streamlines the writing process.

Adherence to Guidelines for Summarizing, Paraphrasing, and Quoting:

Follow established guidelines for summarizing, paraphrasing, and quoting sources. This involves accurately representing the original ideas in your own words, providing proper attribution for summarized content, and using quotation marks and citations for direct quotes. Adhering to these principles demonstrates a commitment to academic honesty.

By internalizing these guidelines, you not only protect yourself from unintentional plagiarism but also cultivate a practice of ethical and responsible scholarship. This approach not only upholds the standards of academic integrity but also enriches your work by showcasing a thoughtful engagement with a variety of sources.

When to Cite

Every idea or fact sourced from an external origin demands proper citation, both within the body of your paper and in the references list. The only exceptions to this rule are facts or general statements falling under the umbrella of common knowledge—information widely supported and found in numerous sources. For instance, there's no need to cite the assertion that most breads, pastas, and cereals are high in carbohydrates; this is a widely recognized and extensively documented fact.

However, if a writer delves into a detailed explanation of the distinctions among the chemical structures of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats, citation becomes imperative. In situations where doubt arises, err on the side of caution and include a citation. This ensures transparency in acknowledging the origins of information, contributing not only to the integrity of your work but also to the broader academic discourse.

In essence, the principle is simple: when you borrow an idea or fact from an external source, give credit where it is due. This practice not only aligns with ethical standards but also showcases a commitment to scholarly rigor and honesty.

Fair Use

In recent times, disputes concerning the fair use of sources have become more prominent in popular culture. Notably, recording artists find themselves in disagreement over the extent to which one has the right to sample another's music. However, in the academic realm, the guidelines for fair use are generally clear-cut.

Writers are permitted to quote from or paraphrase material from previously published works without having to formally secure the copyright holder's permission. Fair use, in this context, implies that writers can legitimately incorporate brief excerpts from source material to bolster and elaborate on their own ideas. For example, a columnist might extract a few sentences from a novel when composing a book review. Nevertheless, resorting to quoting or paraphrasing another's work at excessive length, to the extent that substantial portions of the writing lack originality, falls outside the bounds of fair use.

As Jorge diligently worked on his draft, he took care to accurately cite his sources and avoided over-reliance on any single reference. Despite his conscientious approach, he occasionally found himself quoting a source at considerable length. In such instances, he made it a point to highlight the paragraph in question, intending to revisit it later for a thorough revision.

Jorge's awareness of potential pitfalls in fair use, coupled with his proactive approach to revisions, exemplifies a commitment to academic integrity. By adhering to the principles of fair use and judiciously managing his use of source material, Jorge ensures that his work remains both ethically sound and intellectually robust.

Summary

Heinz (2009) found that “subjects in the low-carbohydrate group (30% carbohydrates; 40% protein, 30% fat) had a mean weight loss of 10 kg (22 lbs) over a 4-month period.” These results were “noticeably better than results for subjects on a low-fat diet (45% carbohydrates, 35% protein, 20% fat)” whose average weight loss was only “7 kg (15.4 lbs) in the same period.” From this, it can be concluded that “low-carbohydrate diets obtain more rapid results.” Other researchers agree that “at least in the short term, patients following low-carbohydrate diets enjoy greater success” than those who follow alternative plans (Johnson & Crowe, 2010).

Upon scrutinizing the paragraph, Jorge discerned that he had veered into territory marked by unoriginal writing. A substantial portion of the paragraph was verbatim from a solitary article. Despite enclosing the material in quotation marks, Jorge acknowledged that this was not an appropriate method for incorporating the research into his paper.

This realization underscores Jorge's commitment to maintaining the integrity of his work and adhering to ethical standards in academic writing. Recognizing the need for a more judicious and transformative use of source material, Jorge was poised to revise and reframe the content to better align with the expectations of original scholarship.

Summary

Low-carbohydrate diets may indeed be superior to other diet plans for short-term weight loss. In a study comparing low-carbohydrate diets and low-fat diets, Heinz (2009) found that subjects who followed a low-carbohydrate plan (30% of total calories) for 4 months lost, on average, about 3 kilograms more than subjects who followed a low-fat diet for the same time. Heinz concluded that these plans yield quick results, an idea supported by a similar study conducted by Johnson and Crowe (2010). What remains to be seen, however, is whether this initial success can be sustained for longer periods.

In the process of revising the paragraph, Jorge recognized that direct quotations from these sources were unnecessary. Instead, he opted to paraphrase the most crucial findings. Mindful of crafting a coherent structure, Jorge introduced the paragraph with a clear topic sentence, encapsulating the main idea. Additionally, he incorporated a concluding sentence that smoothly transitioned to the next significant topic in his essay. This strategic approach not only ensured a seamless integration of source material but also enhanced the overall flow and cohesion of Jorge's writing.

Working with Sources Carefully

Plagiarism often stems from disorganization and carelessness. For instance, a writer might find it challenging to furnish a complete and accurate citation if bibliographical information hasn't been diligently recorded. Cutting and pasting a passage from a website into a paper may result in forgetting the source later on. Procrastination can also play a role; a writer rushing through a draft may resort to sloppy paraphrasing and inaccurate quotations. Any of these actions can create the appearance of plagiarism and carry undesirable consequences.

The most effective safeguard against these forms of plagiarism lies in careful organization of time and notes. Maintaining a detailed working bibliography and comprehensive notes throughout the research process is crucial. Revisiting original sources to dispel uncertainties and allowing ample time for the writing process helps to avoid the temptation to take shortcuts. By adopting these practices, writers not only fortify their work against plagiarism but also contribute to the cultivation of academic integrity and the credibility of their research.

Writing at Work

Adhering to proper citation practices is just as imperative in the professional realm as it is in academic settings. When consulting external sources to inform documents in the workplace, it's essential to apply the general guidelines previously discussed, while also being attentive to any industry-specific citation standards. For more extensive use of others' work, such as seeking permission to link to another company's website on your corporate site, it is paramount to consistently follow the established procedures outlined by your employer. This not only upholds ethical standards but also ensures alignment with company policies, fostering a culture of transparency and integrity in the professional environment.

Academic Integrity

Upholding your integrity within the academic community entails the honest representation of both your work and the work of others, adhering to accepted norms for using external sources. This commitment to integrity is a matter of considerable importance across all academic disciplines and professional fields, symbolizing a point of honor that holds gravity in every scholarly and career pursuit.

Violations of academic integrity carry weighty educational and professional ramifications. Even if instances of cheating and plagiarism go unnoticed, they inevitably result in a student's failure to cultivate essential research and writing skills. For students found guilty of such violations, repercussions range from receiving a failing grade to potential expulsion from the university. In the professional realm, employees who engage in plagiarism risk severe consequences, including termination and lasting damage to their reputation. In essence, the potential benefits of engaging in dishonest practices are never worth the risks, as the enduring impact on both academic and professional trajectories is substantial.

12.2 Developing a Final Draft of a Research Paper

After investing considerable time and effort into your research project, it is imperative to ensure that your final draft reflects the pinnacle of your scholarly endeavors. Achieving this requires a meticulous approach to revising and editing your paper.

While the inclination to take a break from your paper is completely understandable, it's crucial to allocate sufficient time for this pivotal stage of the writing process. In this segment, you will be equipped with specific strategies to refine and elevate your research paper:

Evaluate and Enhance Overall Organization and Cohesion:

Scrutinize the logical flow of your ideas, ensuring a seamless progression from one point to the next.

Consider the coherence between paragraphs and sections, addressing any gaps or redundancies.

Assess the effectiveness of your paper's structure in conveying a clear and compelling narrative.

Maintain an Appropriate Style and Tone:

Confirm that your writing style aligns with the conventions of academic discourse relevant to your field.

Ensure consistency in tone throughout the paper, striking the right balance between formality and engagement.

Refine language choices to enhance clarity and precision while avoiding jargon that may impede understanding.

Utilize Checklists for Error Identification and Correction:

Employ checklists to systematically identify and rectify errors in language usage, grammar, and punctuation.

Verify the accuracy and completeness of citations, adhering to the specified citation style.

Scrutinize formatting details, such as margins, font size, and spacing, to align with the prescribed guidelines.

Remember, the revision and editing phase is an opportunity to elevate your work from good to exceptional. Dedicate the necessary time and attention to refine every aspect of your research paper, ensuring it stands as a testament to your dedication and scholarly acumen.

Revising Your Paper: Organization and Cohesion

In the process of crafting a research paper, it's common to get immersed in the minutiae of editorial details, like the precise format for bibliographical entries. While these particulars undoubtedly hold significance, it's paramount to resist the urge to dive into them prematurely. Instead, invest time in a thorough review and revision of the paper's content.

A stellar research paper exhibits a dual quality of organization and cohesion. Organization ensures a seamless and logical flow of your argument from one point to the next, forming a coherent narrative. Cohesion, on the other hand, underscores the harmonious integration of research findings with your own ideas, creating a fluid and natural synergy within the paper.

In a well-crafted research paper, the information gleaned from research seamlessly melds with the writer's perspectives, presenting a unified and compelling narrative. Before delving into the meticulous details of formatting, take the time to refine the substance of your paper. This foundational step not only fortifies the structural integrity of your work but also sets the stage for a more impactful and polished final product.

Revise to Improve Organization

When undertaking the revision process to enhance the organization of your essay, it's essential to assess the seamless flow of ideas both across the entire composition and within individual paragraphs. The goal is to ensure a coherent progression from the introduction through the body paragraphs to the conclusion, with each section consistently reinforcing your thesis.

Utilize Checklist 12.1 as a valuable tool in this endeavor, guiding you through a systematic examination of the essay's structural integrity. Confirm that the logical sequence of ideas not only connects each part of your essay but also contributes effectively to the overarching argument. By addressing these aspects during the revision stage, you pave the way for a more compelling and well-organized essay that effectively communicates your thesis to your audience.

Checklist 12.1

Revision: Organization

At the essay level

Does my introduction proceed clearly from the opening to the thesis?

Does each body paragraph have a clear main idea that relates to the thesis?

Do the main ideas in the body paragraphs flow in a logical order? Is each paragraph connected to the one before it?

Do I need to add or revise topic sentences or transitions to make the overall flow of ideas clearer?

Does my conclusion summarize my main ideas and revisit my thesis?

At the paragraph level

Does the topic sentence clearly state the main idea?

Do the details in the paragraph relate to the main idea?

Do I need to recast any sentences or add transitions to improve the flow of sentences?

Jorge meticulously revisited his draft, scrutinizing each paragraph with focused attention. As he immersed himself in the text, he strategically highlighted the central idea of every paragraph, a methodical approach aimed at evaluating the logical progression of his thoughts. While the overall flow of ideas appeared clear for the most part, Jorge discerned a hiccup— one paragraph lacked a distinct main idea, disrupting the coherence of his writing.

In response, during the revision process, Jorge took deliberate steps to rectify this issue. He introduced a succinct and well-crafted topic sentence, acting as a beacon to illuminate the overarching theme of the paragraph. This addition served the dual purpose of providing clarity to the reader and establishing a seamless connection with the preceding paragraph. Furthermore, recognizing the importance of smooth transitions, Jorge skillfully incorporated them between sentences, enhancing the fluidity of the narrative and ensuring a more cohesive reading experience.

Upon revisiting the paragraphs, one can discern the transformative impact of Jorge's revisions. The once-disjointed paragraph now seamlessly integrates into the narrative, thanks to the thoughtfully inserted topic sentence and improved transitions. This conscientious approach not only rectified a specific issue but elevated the overall quality of the writing, underscoring the significance of meticulous revision in the refinement of written work.

Exercise

Follow these steps to begin revising your paper’s overall organization.

Print out a hard copy of your paper.

Read your paper paragraph by paragraph. Highlight your thesis and the topic sentence of each paragraph.

Using the thesis and topic sentences as starting points, outline the ideas you presented—just as you would do if you were outlining a chapter in a textbook. Do not look at the outline you created during prewriting. You may write in the margins of your draft or create a formal outline on a separate sheet of paper.

Next, reread your paper more slowly, looking for how ideas flow from sentence to sentence. Identify places where adding a transition or recasting a sentence would make the ideas flow more logically.

Review the topics on your outline. Is there a logical flow of ideas? Identify any places where you may need to reorganize ideas.

Begin to revise your paper to improve organization. Start with any major issues, such as needing to move an entire paragraph. Then proceed to minor revisions, such as adding a transitional phrase or tweaking a topic sentence so it connects ideas more clearly.

Writers meticulously select transitions to artfully convey the nuanced relationships between ideas, whether it's drawing comparisons or expounding on a point through illustrative examples. It is crucial to ensure that the chosen transitions align with the intended purpose and to exercise caution against the excessive use of the same transitions.

Strategic transition choices are akin to a well-choreographed dance, guiding the reader seamlessly through the intellectual terrain of the text. A judicious selection of transitions enhances the coherence of your writing, providing a roadmap for readers to navigate smoothly from one idea to the next.

To expand your repertoire of transitions, refer to Chapter 8, specifically Section 8.4, in "The Writing Process: How Do I Begin?" This section not only elucidates the significance of revising and editing but also offers an extensive list of transitions, a valuable resource for writers seeking to refine the art of seamlessly connecting ideas within their compositions.

Revise to Improve Cohesion

When engaging in the revision process to enhance cohesion, the objective is to scrutinize how the various components of your paper interact. The aim is to identify any elements that appear awkward or disrupt the seamless flow of your narrative. This may involve the removal of extraneous material or the reworking of sections to ensure that all components harmonize seamlessly.

In the realm of research papers, cohesion issues often arise when integrating source material. Awkwardly inserted facts or quotations can prove distracting and confusing to the reader, undermining their role in supporting the writer's point. Similarly, an overreliance on paraphrased or quoted material can hinder the cohesiveness of the paper.

To guide you through this critical phase of revision, refer to Checklist 12.2. This checklist serves as a valuable tool, prompting a thorough review of your essay with a specific focus on cohesion. By systematically addressing any discrepancies in the integration of source material and ensuring a fluid transition between ideas, you pave the way for a more polished and coherent research paper that effectively communicates your point to your audience.

Checklist 12.2

Revision: Cohesion

Does the opening of the paper clearly connect to the broader topic and thesis? Make sure entertaining quotes or anecdotes serve a purpose.

Have I included support from research for each main point in the body of my paper?

Have I included introductory material before any quotations? Quotations should never stand alone in a paragraph.

Does paraphrased and quoted material clearly serve to develop my own points?

Do I need to add to or revise parts of the paper to help the reader understand how certain information from a source is relevant?

Are there any places where I have overused material from sources?

Does my conclusion make sense based on the rest of the paper? Make sure any new questions or suggestions in the conclusion are clearly linked to earlier material.

As Jorge revisited his draft, his discerning eye sought to understand the intricate interplay of various elements in substantiating his thesis. It became apparent that certain pieces of supporting information required a more meticulous integration. Recognizing this, Jorge made the strategic decision to omit certain details altogether. Subsequent to these revisions, the following paragraph reflects a more refined and cohesive presentation of his ideas.

Upon reflection, Jorge found that his mention of pizza and birthday cake appeared subjective and tangential, lacking relevance to his main point. Recognizing this, he promptly excised this unnecessary commentary. Additionally, he discerned that the concluding quotation in the paragraph, while holding merit, lacked a contextual foundation for his readers. The absence of information about Kwon left readers questioning the significance of her opinion.

In response, Jorge astutely addressed this gap by introducing a contextual phrase that seamlessly integrated the quotation. This introductory addition not only enhanced the flow of the paragraph but also served to establish Kwon's credibility, providing readers with a clearer understanding of the source's relevance and the importance of her perspective. These meticulous adjustments contribute to the overall refinement of Jorge's writing, ensuring that each element serves a purpose and contributes meaningfully to the coherence and persuasiveness of his argument.

Writing at Work

An adept understanding of cohesion extends its benefits beyond academic pursuits, finding valuable application in the professional sphere, particularly when crafting and delivering presentations. In the realm of public speaking, presenters often leverage engaging visuals or humorous quotations to captivate their audience. However, the key lies in ensuring that these elements seamlessly align with the substantive content of your presentation.

Consider the scenario of delivering a financial presentation. If the underlying financial report indicates a loss for the company, opting for amusing illustrations would be incongruent and inappropriate. In such instances, it becomes imperative to carefully evaluate the relevance of each element, ensuring that the chosen graphics or quotations complement the gravity and context of the substantive content. This judicious integration not only maintains the cohesion of your presentation but also enhances its effectiveness by resonating with the audience's expectations and the overarching message you seek to convey.

Using a Consistent Style and Tone

Once you've established confidence in the alignment of your paper's content with its intended purpose, the next step involves revising to refine style and tone. In tandem, style and tone coalesce to shape the distinct voice of your paper, influencing how you resonate with your readers. Style encompasses the intricacies of language usage—the structures of your sentences and the precision of your word choices. On the other hand, tone encapsulates the attitude you project toward both your subject matter and your audience, a sentiment conveyed through the careful selection of words. In essence, as you embark on the revision journey, the nuanced interplay between style and tone becomes the artistry that elevates your writing, fostering a connection with your readers that extends beyond the content alone.

Determining an Appropriate Style and Tone

While accepted writing styles may exhibit variations across disciplines, the common objective remains—to present yourself to readers as a knowledgeable and authoritative guide. Writing about research is akin to guiding readers through a topic, much like a tour guide. Striking the right balance is crucial, as an excessively formal guide can alienate or intimidate readers, while an overly informal or humorous tone may cast doubts on the guide's expertise. The use of extreme or emotionally charged language can create an impression of imbalance.

To avoid these pitfalls, it is prudent to establish an appropriate style and tone at the outset of the research process. Consider your topic and audience, allowing these factors to guide your decisions on style and tone. For instance, a paper on breakthroughs in cancer research warrants a more formal tone than a discussion on strategies for a good night's sleep.

A robust research paper communicates as straightforward, suitably academic, and serious. Minimizing the use of first-person language is advisable, as this can lend a subjective and opinion-based tone to your paper. Refer to Checklist 12.3 on style to systematically review your paper for other style and tone considerations. Consistency is key, and you can perform a final check for it at the end of your writing process, as discussed later in this section.

Checklist 12.3

Style

My paper avoids excessive wordiness.

My sentences are varied in length and structure.

I have avoided using first-person pronouns such as I and we.

I have used the active voice whenever possible.

I have defined specialized terms that might be unfamiliar to readers.

I have used clear, straightforward language whenever possible and avoided unnecessary jargon.

My paper states my point of view using a balanced tone—neither too indecisive nor too forceful.

Word Choice

It's crucial to recognize that word choice constitutes a pivotal facet of your writing style. Beyond the considerations outlined in Checklist 12.3, a meticulous review of your paper should ensure that your language is not only precise but also devoid of unintended connotations and biases. Here are specific points to scrutinize:

Vague or Imprecise Terms:

Ensure that your terms and expressions are clear and leave no room for ambiguity or confusion.

Slang:

Avoid the use of informal or colloquial language that may undermine the formality and professionalism of your writing.

Repetition of Phrases:

Steer clear of monotonous repetition, especially when introducing quoted or paraphrased material. Explore a diverse range of verbs to maintain a dynamic and engaging narrative.

Exclusive Use of Masculine Pronouns or Awkward Gendered Language:

Strive for gender-neutral language to foster inclusivity and avoid the awkward use of he or she.

Language with Negative Connotations:

Scrutinize your language for any unintentional negativity, steering clear of terms that may convey haughtiness or ridicule.

Outdated or Offensive Terms:

Ensure that your vocabulary is free of outdated or offensive terms, particularly when referring to specific ethnic, racial, or religious groups.

For a comprehensive list of strong verbs suitable for in-text citations, refer to Chapter 13, "APA and MLA Documentation and Formatting." This exhaustive resource can further elevate the precision and impact of your language in academic writing.

Employing plural nouns and pronouns or rephrasing sentences can effectively maintain gender neutrality in your language while sidestepping awkward constructions. Examine the following examples for illustration:

Gender-Biased:

"When a writer cites a source in the body of his paper, he must list it on his references page."

Awkward:

"When a writer cites a source in the body of his or her paper, he or she must list it on his or her references page."

Improved:

"Writers must list any sources cited in the body of a paper on the references page."

By opting for the improved version, not only is the language rendered gender-neutral, but the sentence is also streamlined for clarity and conciseness. This approach enhances the overall readability and professionalism of your writing.

Keeping Your Style Consistent

As you embark on the revision phase of your paper, it's paramount to ensure a consistent style throughout. Hunt for instances where a word, phrase, or sentence appears incongruent with the rest of your writing. Ideally, reserve the style review for after addressing larger content issues, allowing you to focus solely on the nuances of language without distraction.

Effective revision strategies to enhance style include:

Read Aloud:

Engage your auditory senses to catch inconsistencies that might elude your eyes.

Seek External Feedback:

Share your paper with a trusted reader for impartial feedback. Another perspective can unveil wordiness, confusing language, or other stylistic concerns.

Line-Edit Methodically:

E
dit your paper line by line, perhaps using a sheet of paper to isolate the paragraph you're editing. This deliberate approach ensures careful scrutiny. Mark areas where style or tone issues arise and take the time to rework those sections.

In the case of Jorge, upon reviewing his paper, he recognized that while he generally maintained an appropriately academic style and tone, the first paragraph stood out as a notable exception. Acknowledging moments of overly informal writing that could be perceived as unserious or disparaging, Jorge committed to revising his word choices and omitting a humorous aside. These revisions were aimed at reinstating a consistent and professional tone throughout his paper.

Editing Your Paper

Following the comprehensive revision of your paper to rectify content and style issues, the final phase involves a meticulous editorial review. While minor mistakes may have been addressed in earlier revisions, this ultimate edit is essential to ensure your draft is entirely error-free. Concentrate your final edit on two overarching areas:

Errors in Grammar, Mechanics, Usage, and Spelling:

Scrutinize your paper for grammatical errors, mechanical inconsistencies, usage problems, and spelling mistakes. A polished and error-free language enhances the professionalism of your work.

Errors in Citing and Formatting Sources:

Pay meticulous attention to the accuracy and consistency of your citations and the formatting of sources. Ensure compliance with the stipulated guidelines, whether it be APA, MLA, or any other specified format.

For a more detailed exploration of these topics, refer to Chapter 2, "Writing Basics: What Makes a Good Sentence?" for insights into grammar, mechanics, and usage. Additionally, Chapter 13, "APA and MLA Documentation and Formatting," provides in-depth guidance on citing and formatting sources according to APA and MLA standards.

This final editorial review is your last opportunity to refine the precision and professionalism of your paper. Approach it with thoroughness and attention to detail, leaving no room for oversight in terms of language correctness or adherence to citation and formatting requirements.

Correcting Errors

Considering the substantial effort invested in your research paper, it's imperative to meticulously scrutinize for any errors that might divert or perplex your readers. While utilizing the spell-checking feature in your word-processing program can be beneficial, it should not serve as a substitute for a comprehensive and attentive review of your document. Ensure a thorough examination, paying special attention to any recurring errors from your previous writing experiences.

Leverage Checklist 12.4 as a guiding tool during your editing process. This checklist is designed to assist you in identifying and rectifying common errors, contributing to the overall polish and professionalism of your research paper. This conscientious approach not only enhances the readability of your work but also underscores your commitment to delivering a refined and error-free final product to your audience.

Checklist 12.4

Grammar, Mechanics, Punctuation, Usage, and Spelling

My paper is free of grammatical errors, such as errors in subject-verb agreement and sentence fragments. (For additional guidance on grammar, see Chapter 2 “Writing Basics: What Makes a Good Sentence?”.)

My paper is free of errors in punctuation and mechanics, such as misplaced commas or incorrectly formatted source titles. (For additional guidance on punctuation and mechanics, see Chapter 3 “Punctuation”.)

My paper is free of common usage errors, such as alot and alright. (For additional guidance on correct usage, see Chapter 4 “Working with Words: Which Word Is Right?”.)

My paper is free of spelling errors. I have proofread my paper for spelling in addition to using the spell-checking feature in my word-processing program.

I have checked my paper for any editing errors that I know I tend to make frequently.

Checking Citations and Formatting

During the editing phase of a research paper, it is imperative to verify that you have appropriately cited sources and formatted your document in accordance with the specified guidelines. Two fundamental reasons underscore the importance of this task. Firstly, accurate citation ensures that due credit is given to individuals whose ideas and information have contributed to your work. Secondly, adhering to correct formatting norms establishes your paper as a valuable contribution within the broader academic community.

The prevalent standards for citation and formatting often revolve around style guides such as the American Psychological Association (APA) and Modern Language Association (MLA). The adherence to these guidelines is particularly crucial as they have become standard practices in numerous academic fields.

To assist you in meticulously checking citations and formatting, employ Checklist 12.5. This comprehensive checklist is designed to guide you through the verification process, ensuring that your research paper meets the established criteria for accuracy, credibility, and alignment with academic conventions. Incorporating this step into your editing routine reflects your commitment to upholding scholarly integrity and contributing effectively to the academic discourse in your field.

Checklist 12.5

Citations and Formatting

Within the body of my paper, each fact or idea taken from a source is credited to the correct source.

Each in-text citation includes the source author’s name (or, where applicable, the organization name or source title) and year of publication. I have used the correct format of in-text and parenthetical citations.

Each source cited in the body of my paper has a corresponding entry in the references section of my paper.

My references section includes a heading and double-spaced, alphabetized entries.

Each entry in my references section is indented on the second line and all subsequent lines.

Each entry in my references section includes all the necessary information for that source type, in the correct sequence and format.

My paper includes a title page.

My paper includes a running head.

The margins of my paper are set at one inch. Text is double spaced and set in a standard 12-point font.

Writing at Work

Adhering to the citation and formatting guidelines of APA or MLA, while demanding in terms of time and effort, serves as an invaluable practice for mastering accepted conventions in any professional field. This commitment not only ensures the scholarly integrity of your work but also cultivates a skill set transferable to various professional domains.

In many large corporations, the creation of a comprehensive style manual is common practice. This manual provides explicit guidelines for editing and formatting documents produced within the organization. Employees are expected to consult and adhere to this style manual when crafting internal documents or materials for publication. Embracing such practices fosters consistency, professionalism, and a unified communication approach within the corporate environment.

By honing the ability to navigate and implement style guidelines, individuals not only elevate the quality of their written work but also position themselves as adept communicators within their professional spheres. This practice contributes to a broader understanding of the importance of consistency and adherence to established norms in diverse professional contexts.

Throughout the meticulous process of revising and editing, Jorge meticulously refined both the substance and stylistic elements of his paper. A final review was conducted with meticulous attention to detail, ensuring the overall accuracy of the content and placing a specific emphasis on the precise application of APA or MLA citations and formatting. Please peruse the concluding draft of his paper.

Research Paper Proposal Assignment

In one or two well-developed paragraphs explain your topic and purpose for your research paper. Include the specific points you envision including in your research paper, what kind of research you think you will need to conduct and include your tentative thesis statement.

Your main objective is to essentially explain how you envision your research paper coming together for you.

This assignment will be half a page to a page long.

Assignment Guidelines:

All assignments must be typed, double spaced, in Times New Roman font, 12 point

This paper is to be half a page to a page long.

You can select either APA or MLA formatting style when completing this essay assignment. Please refer to the Formatting Exercise in Unit One for how to set up your assignment in either style. Remember, with APA style, you must include a title page with your assignment. The title page will not count towards the half-page to page long content that you are expected to submit for this essay assignment.

As always, you are expected to use proper grammar and mechanics.

Research Paper Proposal Assignment

            I decided to write the paper comparing computer gaming versus console because when I was younger, I used to play strictly console games since computer games at the time where very basic and also computers didn’t have tons of free games right from the start. It was easier to just buy a console and pick up the games you liked and play them. But as computers became more advanced and offered more free choices of games, I saw that for console I was spending a lot of money buying different consoles when I could buy a good computer and had the ability to play free games that lasted much longer than the average console game.

I also used the topic too because when it comes to computer games. I worked running game servers for 9 years and I have an extensive background in the anti-cheat programs as well as developing hacks since it’s the only way to test whether an anti-cheat software works to detect them. I also tried to explain them in a way so that it wasn’t too technical and it could be understood.

I also not trying to sway people to play one or the other cause just like with PlayStation I used to love playing the SRPG titles like Disgaea and Final Fantasy which would only would come out on Console originally until we hit a phase that they were popular enough to also be ported to console. And to experience wise I have been playing console games from Atari onward so I had a lot of exposure to different consoles and games. So, I felt like this topic I could really add a lot of information which I didn’t have to research or make much of an effort since I can remember most of it on my own without help.