ENG101 English Composition I Chapter 3

 Chapter 3: Punctuation

3.1 Commas

A nuanced grasp of punctuation, especially the comma, is indispensable for fostering effective reading. The comma, a remarkably versatile punctuation mark, plays a pivotal role in indicating pauses within sentences and demarcating items in a list. Its multifaceted applications are exemplified in the instances below:

Introductory Words:

Original: Personally, I think the practice is helpful.

Enhanced: Expressing a personal viewpoint, I find the practice to be helpful.

Lists:

Original: The barn, the tool shed, and the back porch were destroyed by the wind.

Enhanced: The wind wreaked havoc on the barn, tool shed, and back porch.

Coordinating Adjectives:

Original: He was tired, hungry, and late.

Enhanced: Fatigued, famished, and behind schedule, he trudged along.

Conjunctions in Compound Sentences:

Original: The bedroom door was closed, so the children knew their mother was asleep.

Enhanced: Detecting the closed bedroom door, the children deduced that their mother was already asleep.

Interrupting Words:

Original: I knew where it was hidden, of course, but I wanted them to find it themselves.

Enhanced: Naturally, I was aware of its hidden location, but my intention was for them to discover it independently.

Dates, Addresses, Greetings, and Letters:

Original: The letter was postmarked December 8, 1945.

Enhanced: December 8, 1945, marked the date of the postmark on the letter.

By discerning and aptly employing commas in these contexts, your writing acquires clarity and precision. These illustrations underscore the nuanced ways in which commas contribute to the structure and fluidity of sentences.

Commas after an Introductory Word or Phrase

A discerning reader might observe a strategically placed comma near the inception of a sentence, typically following a word or phrase. This comma serves as a guide, distinctly demarcating the conclusion of the introductory word or phrase and the commencement of the main sentence.

Without spoiling the surprise party, we need to tell him to save the date.

Within this sentence, "without spoiling the surprise party" serves as an introductory phrase, delineated from the main sentence "we need to tell him to save the date" by a carefully placed comma. It's worth noting that when the sentence features only an introductory word, a similar comma convention is observed following that introductory word.

Ironically, he already had plans for that day.

Exercise

Look for the introductory word or phrase. On your own sheet of paper, copy the sentence and add a comma to correct the sentence.

Suddenly the cat ran into the house.

In the blink of an eye the kids were ready to go to the movies.

Confused he tried opening the box from the other end.

Every year we go camping in the forest.

Without a doubt blue is my favorite color.

Hesitating she looked back at the directions before proceeding.

Fortunately the sleeping cat did not stir when the doorbell rang.

Believe it or not the criminal was able to rob the same bank four times.

Commas in a List of Items

When compiling a list of nouns in a sentence, it's essential to employ commas to separate each word. This facilitates a reader's ability to pause after each item, aiding in the clear identification of the included words. The convention dictates placing a comma after each noun, followed by the word "and" before the last item. Notably, there is no need to include a comma after the final item in the list.

We’ll need to get flour, cucumbers, and tomatoes at the store.

The pizza will be topped with chicken,banana peppers, and garlic.

Commas and Coordinating Adjectives

Commas prove invaluable when listing both adjectives and nouns. A series of adjectives that collectively describe a noun is termed coordinating adjectives. These adjectives, positioned before the noun they modify, are appropriately set apart by commas. It's crucial to note that, unlike when listing nouns, the inclusion of the word "and" before the last adjective is not always necessary.

It was a dark, windy, rainy day.

Our kite glowed green, orange, and blue in the morning sunlight.

Exercise

On your own sheet of paper, use what you have learned so far about comma use to add commas to the following sentences.

Wednesday Thursday and Friday are all booked with meetings.

It was a noisy eventful productive day.

We’ll need to prepare statements for the Franks Birchs and Smiths before their portfolio reviews next week.

Michelle Nika and Dan finished their report last Tuesday.

With cold wet aching fingers he was able to secure the sails before the storm.

He wrote his name on the board in clear precise delicate letters.

Commas before Conjunctions in Compound Sentences

Commas play a role in separating two independent clauses when they appear together. Following the first independent clause, a comma is introduced, followed by a conjunction like for, and, or but. For an exhaustive list of conjunctions, refer to Chapter 2, titled "Writing Basics: What Makes a Good Sentence?" in your resource materials.

She missed class today, and she thinks she will be out tomorrow, too.

She says her fever is gone, but she is still very tired.

Exercise

On your own sheet of paper, create a compound sentence by combining the two independent clauses with a comma and a coordinating conjunction.

The presentation was scheduled for Friday. The weather delayed the presentation for three days.

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He wanted a snack before bedtime. He ate some nuts.

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The patient is in the room across. I can hardly hear anything.

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We could go fishing for vacation. We could go to the beach for vacation.

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I want to get a better job. I am taking courses at night.

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I cannot move forward on this project. I cannot afford to stop on this project.

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Patrice wants to stop for lunch. We will take the next exit to look for a restaurant.

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I’ve got to get this project done. I have class in five minutes.

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The weather was clear yesterday. We decided to go on a picnic.

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I have never dealt with this client before. I know Leonardo has worked with them. Let’s ask Leonardo for his help.

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Commas before and after Interrupting Words

During conversations, it's common to interject additional details that momentarily divert your train of thought. Similarly, in written sentences, you might incorporate interrupting words—words or phrases that provide additional context. These interrupting words can manifest at the beginning or in the middle of a sentence. When they appear at the sentence's outset, it's customary to place a comma after the word or phrase.

If you can believe it, people once thought the earth was flat.

Luckily, some people questioned that theory.

When interrupting words insert themselves in the middle of a sentence, the convention is to set them apart with commas. To identify the appropriate placement of commas, examine the sentence for the segment that, while informative, is not crucial for the sentence's overall coherence.

An Italian astronomer, Galileo, proved that Earth orbited the sun.

We have known, for hundreds of years now, that the Earth and other planets exist in a solar system.

Exercise

On your own sheet of paper, copy the sentence and insert commas to separate the interrupting words from the rest of the sentence.

I asked my neighbors the retired couple from Florida to bring in my mail.

Without a doubt her work has improved over the last few weeks.

Our professor Mr. Alamut drilled the lessons into our heads.

The meeting is at noon unfortunately which means I will be late for lunch.

We came in time for the last part of dinner but most importantly we came in time for dessert.

All of a sudden our network crashed and we lost our files.

Alex hand the wrench to me before the pipe comes loose again.

Commas in Dates, Addresses, and the Greetings and Closings of Letters

Commas are also employed when formatting dates in various written contexts, such as cover letters and emails. They find their place not only in date presentation but also when incorporating an address or extending a greeting.

When spelling out the complete date, introduce a comma after the day and before the year. It's important to note that no comma is required when indicating only the month and day or when specifying the month and year. Additionally, if your sentence extends beyond the date, conclude the date portion with a comma before seamlessly continuing the sentence.

The letter is postmarked February 9, 2023.

His birthday is March 5.

She visited the country in July 2019.

I registered for the conference on August 7, 2023, so we should get our tickets soon.

Commas serve a crucial role when incorporating addresses and locations into your writing. When integrating an address into a sentence, it's imperative to insert a comma after the street and another after the city. However, it's essential to avoid placing a comma between the state and the zip code. Similar to handling dates, if your sentence extends beyond the address, seamlessly carry on by adding a comma after concluding the address portion.

We moved to 4342 Burclover Lane, Trust, Mississippi 39503.

After moving to Charlotte, North Carolina, Sara used public transportation to get to work.

Salutations in written communication are appropriately set off by commas. In the realm of emails or letters, a comma follows the greeting word or the individual's name. Similarly, after the closing—a word or phrase preceding your signature—a comma is a necessary punctuation mark.

Hello,

I would like more information about your job posting.

Thank you,

Anita Smith

Dear Mrs. Smith,

Thank you for your letter. Please read the attached document for details.

Sincerely,

Jack Frost

Exercise

On your own sheet of paper, use what you have learned about using commas to edit the following letter.

April 22 2013

Alex Smith

24 Camden Drive Apt. 1

New Castle Maine 90341

Dear Mr. Timmons

Thank you for agreeing to meet with me. I am available on Monday the fifth. I can stop by your office at any time. Is your address still 7209 Marycourt Circle #521? Please get back to me at your earliest convenience.

Thank you

Alex

On your own sheet of paper, use what you have learned about comma usage to edit the following paragraphs.

My brother Nathaniel is a collector of many rare unusual things. He has collected lunch boxes limited edition books and hatpins at various points of his life. His current collection of unusual bottles has over fifty pieces. Usually he sells one collection before starting another.

Our meeting is scheduled for Thursday March 21. In that time we need to gather all our documents together. Alice is in charge of the timetables and schedules. Tom is in charge of updating the guidelines. I am in charge of the presentation. To prepare for this meeting please print out any e-mails faxes or documents you have referred to when writing your sample.

It was a cool crisp autumn day when the group set out. They needed to cover several miles before they made camp so they walked at a brisk pace. The leader of the group Garth kept checking his watch and their GPS location. Isabelle Raoul and Maggie took turns carrying the equipment while Carrie took notes about the wildlife they saw. As a result no one noticed the darkening sky until the first drops of rain splattered on their faces.

Please have your report complete and filed by August  15 2013. In your submission letter please include your contact information the position you are applying for and two people we can contact as references. We will not be available for consultation after April 10 but you may contact the office if you have any questions. Thank you HR Department.

3.2 Semicolons

An additional punctuation mark you'll come across is the semicolon (;). Similar to other punctuation marks, the semicolon boasts versatile applications. It signals a pause in the sentence's flow, yet its function differs from that of a period or a comma. When you encounter a semicolon during oral reading, it serves as a natural point to pause, allowing for a thoughtful breath.

Semicolons to Join Two Independent Clauses

Employ a semicolon to seamlessly unite two closely related independent clauses. Opting for a period to divide these interconnected clauses into shorter sentences may result in writing that feels disjointed. Likewise, using a comma could result in an awkward and confusing run-on sentence. The strategic use of a semicolon maintains a smooth and cohesive flow between the related ideas.

Correct: Be sure to wear clean, well-pressed clothes to the interview; appearances are important.

Choppy: Be sure to wear clean, well-pressed clothes to the interview. Appearances are important.

Incorrect: Be sure to wear clean, well-pressed clothes to the interview, appearances are important.

In this scenario, structuring the independent clauses as two separate sentences, each punctuated by a period, is technically accurate. However, employing a semicolon to unite the clauses can elevate your writing, infusing it with a captivating variety of sentence lengths and structures. This not only preserves the flow of ideas but also adds an engaging rhythm to your prose.

Semicolons to Join Items in a List

A semicolon finds its utility in linking items within a list, especially when the individual items themselves already necessitate the use of commas. This strategic use of semicolons aids the reader in clear differentiation between the various elements in the list, enhancing overall comprehension.

Correct: The color combinations we can choose from are black, white, and grey; green, brown, and black; or red, green, and brown.

Incorrect: The color combinations we can choose from are black, white, and grey, green, brown, and black, or red, green, and brown.

The judicious inclusion of semicolons in this sentence facilitates clear differentiation among the three sets of colors for the reader. Utilize semicolons to conjoin two main clauses; however, refrain from using semicolons in conjunction with coordinating conjunctions like and, or, and but.

Exercise

On your own sheet of paper, correct the following sentences by adding semicolons. If the sentence is correct as it is, write OK.

I did not notice that you were in the office I was behind the front desk all day.

Do you want salami, spinach, and cheese roast turkey, lettuce, and cheese or ham, tomato, and cheese?

Please close the blinds there is a glare on the screen.

Unbelievably, no one was hurt in the accident.

I cannot decide if I want my room to be green, brown, and purple green, black, and brown or green, brown, and dark red.

Let’s go for a walk the air is so refreshing.

3.3 Colons

The colon (:) is a punctuation mark that signals a complete pause. Employ a colon to introduce lists, quotes, examples, and explanations. Additionally, in business letters and memos, it is customary to use a colon after the greeting.

Dear Hiring Manager:

To: Human Resources

From: Deanna Dean

Colons to Introduce a List

Initiate a list of items with a colon by prefacing it with an independent clause. This establishes a clear and effective structure for presenting the subsequent items.

The team will tour three states: North Carolina, Maryland, and California.

I have to take four classes this semester: Computer Repair, Statistics, Ethics, and Japanese.

Colons to Introduce a Quote

You can use a colon to introduce a quote.

Mark Twain said it best: “When in doubt, tell the truth.”

For quotes exceeding forty words, create a visual break by skipping a line after the colon and indenting the left margin of the quote by five spaces. Given this extended format, which employs line spacing and indentation, the use of quotation marks is deemed unnecessary.

My father always loved Mark Twain’s words:

There are basically two types of people. People who accomplish things, and people who claim to have accomplished things. The first group is less crowded.

Extended quotations, defined as forty words or more, are termed block quotations. These sizable quotes are commonly found in longer essays and research papers. 

Colons to Introduce Examples or Explanations

Utilize a colon to introduce an example or to provide additional clarification for an idea presented in the initial segment of a sentence. Ensure that the first part of the sentence constitutes an independent clause, capable of standing alone as a complete thought with both a subject and a verb. Avoid using a colon after phrases like "such as" or "for example."

Correct: Our company offers many publishing services: writing, editing, and reviewing.

Incorrect: Our company offers many publishing services, such as: writing, editing, and reviewing.

Capitalize the first letter after a colon when it introduces a proper noun, initiates a quote, or leads into another independent clause. However, refrain from capitalizing if the information following the colon is not a complete sentence.

Proper noun: We explored three nations: Belize, Honduras, and El Salvador.

Beginning of a quote: My mother cherished this line from Hamlet: "To thine own self be true."

Two independent clauses: There are drawbacks to modern technology: My brother's cell phone died, and he lost a lot of phone numbers.

Incorrect: The recipe is simple: tomato, basil, and avocado.

Exercise

On your own sheet of paper, correct the following sentences by adding semicolons or colons where needed. If the sentence does not need a semicolon or colon, write OK.

Don’t give up you never know what tomorrow brings.

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Our records show that the patient was admitted on March 14, 2018 January 12, 2011 and October 13, 2019.

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Allow me to introduce myself I am the greatest ice-carver in the world.

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Where I come from there are three ways to get to the grocery store by car, by bus, and by foot.

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Listen closely you will want to remember this speech.

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I have lived in Sedona, Arizona Baltimore, Maryland and Knoxville, Tennessee.

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The boss’s message was clear Lateness would not be tolerated.

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Next semester, we will read some more contemporary authors, such as Vonnegut, Miller, and Orwell.

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My little sister said what we were all thinking “We should have stayed home.”

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Trust me I have done this before.

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3.4 Quotes

Quotation marks (“ ”) serve to delineate a set of words from the surrounding text. They are employed to denote direct quotations of another person's words or to highlight a title. It's crucial to note that quotation marks always appear in pairs, framing the quoted or titled content.

Direct Quotations

A direct quotation is a verbatim representation of someone's spoken or written words. When incorporating a direct quotation into your writing, enclose the quoted words within quotation marks. In contrast, an indirect quotation involves rephrasing what someone said or wrote without using their exact words. There is no need to employ quotation marks when presenting indirect quotations.

Direct quotation: Carly said, “I’m not ever going back there again.”

Indirect quotation: Carly said that she would never go back there.

Writing at Work

While most word processing software is adept at detecting grammar, spelling, and punctuation errors, it is more beneficial to have a thorough understanding of punctuation rules rather than relying solely on the computer. Proficient punctuation ensures that your writing conveys your intended meaning clearly. Consider the nuanced shifts in meaning in the following sentences:

The client said he thought our manuscript was garbage.

The client said, “He thought our manuscript was garbage.”

In the first sentence, it appears as an indirect quote where the client dislikes the manuscript. However, questions arise: Did the client actually use the word “garbage,” and is this an accurate representation of their sentiment, or has the speaker paraphrased and exaggerated the client's words?

The second sentence, on the other hand, seems to present a direct quote from the client. Yet, ambiguity persists: Who is this mysterious "he" in the sentence? Could it be a third party?

While such distinctions may not be flagged as grammatically incorrect by word processing software, understanding punctuation ensures that you articulate precisely what you mean. In this case, it can avert potential confusion and misinterpretation in the office.

Punctuating Direct Quotations

Quotation marks serve as a visual indicator of another person's precise words. Frequently, it's essential to attribute the quoted text to a specific speaker, a practice that can be executed at the beginning, in the middle, or at the end of the quote. Pay attention to the strategic use of commas and capitalized words in these attributions.

Beginning: Madison said, “Let’s stop at the farmers market to buy some fresh vegetables for dinner.”

Middle: “Let’s stop at the farmers market,” Madison said, “to buy some fresh vegetables for dinner.”

End: “Let’s stop at the farmers market to buy some fresh vegetables for dinner,” Madison said.

Speaker not identified: “Let’s stop at the farmers market to buy some fresh vegetables for dinner.”

Consistently capitalize the initial letter of a quote, regardless of its position within the sentence. When incorporating identifying words within the quote, there's no necessity to capitalize the commencement of the second part. Ensure the proper placement of commas between identifying words and quotes. Position quotation marks after commas and periods, and following question marks and exclamation points only if they are integral to the quoted text. This adherence to punctuation rules enhances the clarity and accuracy of quoted material.

Question is part of quoted text: The new employee asked, “When is lunch?”

Question is not part of quoted text: Did you hear her say you were “the next Picasso”?

Exclamation is part of quoted text: My supervisor beamed, “Thanks for all of your hard work!”

Exclamation is not part of quoted text: He said I “single-handedly saved the company thousands of dollars”!

Quotations within Quotations

Employ single quotation marks (‘ ’) to indicate a quotation within a quotation. This practice helps maintain clarity and distinction when nested quotes are utilized.

Theresa said, “I wanted to take my dog to the festival, but the man at the gate said, ‘No dogs allowed.’”

“When you say, ‘I can’t help it,’ what exactly does that mean?”

“The instructions say, ‘Tighten the screws one at a time.’”

Titles

Enclose titles of shorter works—such as essays, songs, poems, short stories, and book chapters—in quotation marks. Conversely, titles of more extensive works like books, magazines, albums, newspapers, and novels are typically italicized. This distinction in formatting ensures clarity and adherence to widely accepted conventions.

“Annabelle Lee” is one of my favorite romantic poems.

The New York Times has been in publication since 1851.

Writing at Work

In the business realm, precision in language is often paramount, making the distinction between exact wording and paraphrasing crucial. In legal contexts or when performing tasks with precision, having an accurate account of what the client, customer, or supervisor said holds significant importance. Paraphrasing, at times, may inadvertently overlook crucial details in instructions. To convey exact words, utilize quotation marks as needed, and always specify the source of the quotation, whether it be the client, customer, peer, or another relevant entity. This practice not only ensures accuracy but also fosters clear communication within the workplace.

Exercise

Copy the following sentences onto your own sheet of paper, and correct them by adding quotation marks where necessary. If the sentence does not need any quotation marks, write OK.

Yasmin said, I don’t feel like cooking. Let’s go out to eat.

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Where should we go? said Russell.

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Yasmin said it didn’t matter to her.

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I know, said Russell, let’s go to the Two Roads Juice Bar.

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Perfect! said Yasmin.

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Did you know that the name of the Juice Bar is a reference to a poem? asked Russell.

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I didn’t! exclaimed Yasmin. Which poem?

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The Road Not Taken, by Robert Frost Russell explained.

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Oh! said Yasmin, Is that the one that starts with the line, Two roads diverged in a yellow wood?

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That’s the one said Russell.

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3.5 Apostrophes

An apostrophe (’) functions as a punctuation mark employed with a noun to denote possession or to signify the omission of a letter in forming a contraction.

Possession

An apostrophe combined with the letter "s" denotes ownership or possession. To convey possession with a singular noun, append 's.

Jen’s dance routine mesmerized everyone in the room.

The dog’s leash is hanging on the hook beside the door.

Jess’s sister is also coming to the party.

It's important to observe that singular nouns ending in 's' still adopt the apostrophe 's (’s) ending to indicate possession.

To convey possession with a plural noun ending in 's', simply add an apostrophe (’). However, if the plural noun does not conclude with 's', insert an apostrophe and an 's' (’s).

Plural noun that ends in s: The drummers’ sticks all moved in the same rhythm, like a machine.

Plural noun that does not end in s: The people’s votes clearly showed that no one supported the management decision.

Contractions

A contraction is a linguistic construction formed by combining two words. Within a contraction, an apostrophe denotes the omission of one or more letters. While contractions are prevalent in informal writing, they are generally avoided in formal writing.

I do not like ice cream.

I don’t like ice cream.

Observe the amalgamation of the words "do" and "not" into the contraction "don't." The apostrophe in "don't" serves as an indicator of the omission of the "o" in "not."

We will see you later.

We’ll see you later.

Refer to the chart for various examples of frequently used contractions.

Exercise caution to avoid confusion between "it's" and "its." "It's" is a contraction of the words "it" and "is," while "its" is a possessive pronoun.

Examples:

It's cold and rainy outside. (Expands to "It is cold and rainy outside.")

The cat was chasing its tail. (Indicates possession—the tail belongs to the cat.)

When uncertain, substitute the words "it is" in a sentence. If the sentence remains coherent, opt for the contraction "it's." This practice ensures accurate usage in contexts that involve possession and contractions.

Exercise

On your own sheet of paper, correct the following sentences by adding apostrophes. If the sentence is correct as it is, write OK.

“What a beautiful child! She has her mothers eyes.”

My brothers wife is one of my best friends.

I couldnt believe it when I found out that I got the job!

My supervisors informed me that I wouldnt be able to take the days off.

Each of the students responses were unique.

Wont you please join me for dinner tonight?

3.6 Parentheses

Parentheses (), punctuation marks always employed in pairs, enclose supplementary information within a sentence. Crucially, they should never encapsulate the core subject or verb of a sentence. The coherence of a sentence remains intact even if the content enclosed within parentheses—along with the parentheses themselves—is omitted.

Sharknado has to be the worst movie I have seen (so far).

Your spinach and garlic salad is one of the most delicious (and nutritious) foods I have ever tasted!

Exercise

On your own sheet of paper, clarify the following sentences by adding parentheses. If the sentence is clear as it is, write OK.

Are you going to the seminar this weekend I am?

I recommend that you try the sushi bar unless you don’t like sushi.

I was able to solve the puzzle after taking a few moments to think about it.

Please complete the questionnaire at the end of this letter.

Has anyone besides me read the assignment?

Please be sure to circle not underline the correct answers.

3.7 Dashes

A dash (—) serves as a punctuation mark employed to highlight information within a sentence for added emphasis. Whether you choose to enclose text between two dashes or utilize a single dash, the purpose remains the same. In Microsoft Word, to craft a dash, simply type two hyphens consecutively, ensuring no space intervenes between the dashes and the adjoining text.

Arrive to the interview early—but not too early.

Any of the suits—except for the purple one—should be fine to wear.

Exercise

On your own sheet of paper, clarify the following sentences by adding dashes. If the sentence is clear as it is, write OK.

Which hairstyle do you prefer short or long?

I don’t know I hadn’t even thought about that.

Guess what I got the job!

I will be happy to work over the weekend if I can have Monday off.

You have all the qualities that we are looking for in a candidate intelligence, dedication, and a strong work ethic.

3.8 Hyphens

A hyphen (-) bears a visual resemblance to a dash but is notably shorter and fulfills distinct roles in punctuation.

Hyphens between Two Adjectives That Work as One

Utilize a hyphen to unite words that collaboratively create a unified description.

The fifty–five–year–old athlete was just as qualified for the marathon as his younger opponents.

My doctor recommended against taking the medication, since it can be habit–forming.

My study group focused on preparing for the midyear review.

Hyphens When a Word Breaks at the End of a Line

Employ a hyphen to separate a word at the end of a line, a task often automated by word-processing programs. In instances where manual hyphenation is necessary, position the hyphen between two syllables. If uncertainty arises regarding the hyphen placement, reference a dictionary or consider relocating the entire word to the subsequent line.

My supervisor was concerned that the team meet–

ing would conflict with the client meeting.

Organization Overview

Unit 2 aimed to assist students in generating ideas for essays and overcoming writer's block. The emphasis was on the initial phase of getting thoughts on paper, employing tools like freewriting, brainstorming, and reactive reading. During this stage, the focus was on quantity over quality, emphasizing the importance of having something on paper as a starting point.

However, after this initial creative phase, the need arises to refine and transform the raw material into a coherent essay or another formal document suitable for academic or professional settings.

The first step in this transformative process, as covered in Unit 3, is Organization. This unit will provide the necessary tools to initiate the organizational process, giving structure and direction to the ideas previously put on paper.

Organization is dissected into two key aspects: Focus and Shape.

Focus involves addressing essential questions such as: a) What is the subject of your writing? b) Who is your audience? c) Why are you writing? Answering these questions helps bring clarity and definition to the writing, gradually shaping it into a coherent essay.

Shape pertains to the arrangement of thoughts, ideas, facts, and information. Deciding what comes first, second, third, and so forth, and determining how to start and conclude are crucial aspects of shaping an essay. The unit will introduce techniques to help organize ideas systematically.

Furthermore, a supplemental video will illustrate that writing essays is a comprehensive process. It underscores that instead of composing an essay in a single sitting, the writing process involves generating ideas, organizing them, possibly revisiting and expanding on those ideas, and ultimately, engaging in editing and proofreading to refine the final version. This video aims to elucidate the journey from initial concepts to a polished essay, providing a clearer understanding of the overall writing process.

Organization Through Focus

On the preceding page, you acquired insights into the initial aspect of organization, which involves answering crucial questions to enhance clarity in writing. These questions are: 1) What are you writing about? 2) To whom are you writing it? 3) Why are you writing it?

Now, let's explore some tools to bring your writing into focus and address these questions.

The first tool is the Topic. The topic represents your subject matter, essentially what your writing revolves around. In college, it's advisable to be more specific with topics, as instructors may encourage narrowing down subjects that appear too broad. For instance, if your initial interest is animals, you might need to refine it to focus on a particular aspect, such as older dogs, to make it suitable for a college essay.

The second tool is the Thesis. While many students can define a thesis as the main focus of an essay, a one-sentence summary, or the significant point, formulating an actual thesis can be challenging. To simplify this process, consider a formula that has proven effective: Topic + A Claim About The Topic = Thesis. For example, if your specific topic is Older Dogs, and your claim is that older dogs make better pets for families than puppies, your resulting thesis is "Older dogs make better pets than puppies."

This thesis becomes the foundation of your essay, guiding its development. As we delve into the second aspect of Shape, you'll discover how to gather support for this statement and construct your essay. For now, grasp the importance of the formula Topic + A Claim About the Topic = Thesis to craft a fundamental thesis.

When composing your essay, bear in mind that every element you include should contribute to proving the claim you made in your thesis. This approach ensures your writing remains focused and stays on course. The explicit application of this principle will become evident in forthcoming assignments.

Developing Strong Thesis Statements

The thesis statement or main claim should be contentious and open to debate. For an argumentative or persuasive piece of writing to be effective, the thesis must present a topic on which people could reasonably hold differing opinions. If the thesis simply states something widely agreed upon or accepted as fact, the need to persuade becomes obsolete.

Illustration of a non-debatable thesis statement:

The statement "Pollution is bad for the environment" lacks debate as the term "pollution" inherently carries a negative connotation. Moreover, there is a consensus across studies that acknowledge pollution as a problem, with disagreements primarily centered on its impact or the extent of the issue. Asserting that pollution is unequivocally positive is not a reasonable argument.

In contrast, consider the following examples of debatable thesis statements:

"At least 25 percent of the federal budget should be spent on limiting pollution."

This statement invites differing opinions as individuals may hold contrasting views on how the nation's funds should be allocated. Some may advocate for environmental initiatives, while others argue for increased spending on education or other priorities. The debate lies in the allocation of resources.

"America's anti-pollution efforts should focus on privately owned cars."

This thesis sparks debate by suggesting a specific focus for anti-pollution endeavors. Some might agree, seeing cars as a significant contributor to pollution, while others may argue that alternative industries or regulations targeting corporations should take precedence. The allocation of efforts becomes a point of contention.

In this instance, there is ample space for disagreement among reasonable individuals. Certain citizens may contend that prioritizing recycling programs, as opposed to targeting private automobiles, constitutes a more effective and impactful strategy. The differing perspectives on the most efficient approach to addressing environmental concerns introduce a layer of rational debate and contribute to the complexity of the discussion.

The thesis needs to be narrow

Commencing your paper may seem daunting given its initial scope, yet as a rule of thumb, a more specific thesis tends to fortify your argument's effectiveness. Essential to this is the support your thesis receives from evidence; the broader your claim, the greater the need for convincing evidence to sway readers toward your stance.

Consider the following example of a thesis that is excessively broad:

"Drug use is detrimental to society."

This statement poses challenges for argumentation due to its lack of specificity. The term "drugs" remains undefined—does it encompass illegal substances, recreational drugs (including alcohol and cigarettes), or all forms of medication? The scope of detriment remains vague as well, raising questions about the nature of harm, whether it involves deaths, moral implications, or economic decline. Furthermore, the term "society" lacks clarity—is it limited to the United States or extends to the global population? The breadth of this claim opens the door to numerous interpretations, making it impractical to cover all possible facets in a coherent argument.

Contrast this with a more focused thesis:

"Illegal drug use is detrimental because it encourages gang violence."

Here, the topic has been narrowed down to illegal drugs, and the detriment is specified as gang violence. This targeted approach makes the topic more manageable.

Applying the same principle to the previous examples, we can narrow the debatable theses:

Narrowed debatable thesis 1:

"At least 25 percent of the federal budget should be spent on upgrading businesses to clean technologies, researching renewable energy sources, and planting more trees to control or eliminate pollution."

This thesis narrows down the argument by specifying not only the budget allocation but also outlining how the funds could directly contribute to pollution control.

Narrowed debatable thesis 2:

"America's anti-pollution efforts should focus on privately owned cars because it allows most citizens to contribute to national efforts and care about the outcome."

This thesis narrows the focus of the argument by not only specifying the target of a national anti-pollution campaign but also explaining the rationale behind this choice.

Additionally, incorporating qualifiers such as "typically," "generally," "usually," or "on average" helps to temper the scope of your claim, acknowledging the almost inevitable exceptions to the rule.

Types of claims

Claims typically fall into one of four distinct categories, each offering a unique perspective to frame your thesis and focus your argument on a specific facet of your overarching topic.

Claims of Fact or Definition:

These claims center around the definition of something or the assertion of whether something constitutes an established fact. For instance:

"While some pundits have framed a four-year college education as something necessary for adult success, this notion should not be treated as a given."

Claims of Cause and Effect:

These claims assert that a particular person, thing, or event has led to the occurrence of another thing or event. For example:

"Federal student loan policies have contributed to widespread growth in college tuition."

Claims about Value:

These claims evaluate the worth of something, exploring how we perceive, rate, or categorize it. For instance:

"The student debt crisis is one of the most serious problems facing the country today."

Claims about Solutions or Policies:

These claims advocate for or against a specific solution or policy approach to address a problem. For example:

"Rather than encouraging all students to attend four-year colleges, we should instead emphasize the validity of two-year colleges, technical schools, and trade schools."

Choosing the appropriate type of claim for your argument depends on various factors, including your stance on the topic, your familiarity with the subject matter, your target audience, and the overall context of your paper. Consider where you perceive your audience standing on the issue and identify potential areas of divergence in viewpoints. Even if you start with a specific type of claim, it's likely that your paper will incorporate several types of claims to build a comprehensive argument. Regardless of the chosen claim, it's crucial to clearly define the controversy or debate you are addressing and establish your position early in the paper. This sets the tone for a focused and compelling argument.

The third crucial tool in effective writing is your audience or readership. When crafting your message, several considerations come into play with regards to your audience. One key factor is assessing the level of knowledge your readers possess on the topic. It's essential to gauge whether your readers can comprehend both your subject matter and the terminology you employ. If there's a likelihood of unfamiliarity, providing background information becomes paramount to ensure clarity in your communication.

Additionally, understanding your audience's sentiments toward the topic is crucial. If they lack interest, it becomes necessary to incorporate compelling details that pique their curiosity and encourage them to engage with your writing. This consideration is closely linked to the tone you adopt in your writing. Determining the formality your readers expect is essential. Aligning your tone with their expectations contributes to effective communication, fostering a connection between the writer and the audience.

Formal Writing Voice

Have you ever found yourself attending an event that required "formal" attire? In such situations, you likely opted against donning old jeans with knee holes, a stained tee shirt adorned with a favorite beverage logo, and a pair of sandals. Instead, you probably chose attire that was more in line with the formality of the occasion.

Consider another scenario: delivering a significant speech to an unfamiliar audience. Would you employ the same language you use when conversing with friends? It's improbable. Acknowledging the unfamiliarity with the audience, the gravity of the occasion, your intention to showcase expertise, and the desired impression, you would likely adopt a more formal tone for your speech than you would in casual conversations with close friends.

For every essay composed in this course, it is advisable to embrace a formal writing voice. This entails using language akin to what you would employ in delivering a crucial speech, as opposed to the casual language reserved for conversations with close friends. A formal tone not only conveys the writer's respect for the audience but also indicates the writer's seriousness and commitment to the chosen topic. It mirrors the tone that educated individuals employ when communicating with their peers, making it a fitting choice for most academic writing.

To assist you in maintaining a formal writing voice in your essays, the following guidelines have been outlined.

1. Do not use first-person pronouns ("I," "me," "my," "we," "us," etc.).

Avoiding the use of certain expressions in analytical and persuasive essays is essential to prevent wordiness, project confidence in your ideas, and maintain a formal tone. The inclusion of first-person pronouns is generally unnecessary in the essays you write for this course. Since readers are already aware that they are engaging with your thoughts, beliefs, or opinions, there is no need to explicitly state phrases like "I think that," "I believe that," or "in my opinion." Removing these expressions from your sentences results in more robust and more formal expressions.

Example:

"I think that this character is confused."

"This character is confused."

(The second sentence is concise, formal, and exudes a more confident tone.)

In formal papers, consider using terms like "one," "the reader," "readers," "the viewer," or similar expressions as substitutes for first-person pronouns. However, exercise caution not to overuse these alternatives, aiming for a balance that maintains formality without sounding awkward or stiff.

Example:

"I can sense the character's confusion."

"Readers can sense the character's confusion."

2. Avoid addressing readers as "you."

The use of second-person pronouns ("you" and "your") in an essay can introduce an informal tone and potentially impose assumptions that may not hold true. For instance, a student wrote in her essay, "If you wear a tube top, guys might think that you are easy." This statement led me to question why the student presumed that I, as a male, would wear a tube top. Similar to first-person pronouns, second-person pronouns can be effectively substituted with terms such as "one," "the reader," "readers," or "the viewer." This substitution not only maintains formality but also avoids making unwarranted assumptions about the reader.

3. Avoid the use of contractions.

Contractions, characterized by the use of apostrophes to shorten words (e.g., "can't," "isn't," "she's," "wouldn't"), can introduce informality into your writing. The more formal, non-contracted alternatives include "cannot," "is not," "she is," and "would not." Substituting contractions with their non-contracted counterparts can significantly enhance the formality and overall tone of a sentence.

Example:

"The character isn't aware that he's surrounded by people he can't trust."

"The character is not aware that he is surrounded by people he cannot trust."

Transforming your writing to a more formal style by avoiding contractions is a straightforward process: identify contractions in your text and replace them with the non-contracted versions of the words. This simple adjustment contributes to a more polished and formal presentation of your ideas.

4. Avoid colloquialism and slang expressions.

Colloquial diction, which comprises informal language commonly used in everyday speech, includes terms like "guys," "yeah," "stuff," "kind of," "okay," and "big deal." Words that fall into the realm of highly informal language, such as "freak out" and "dissing," are categorized as "slang." Although slang expressions can be vivid and expressive, they tend to be transient, evolving quickly, which is why they should be avoided in formal writing. Both colloquialism and slang contribute to an informal tone and are best steered clear of in formal writing.

Example:

"The guy was nailed for ripping off a liquor store."

"The man was convicted of robbing a liquor store."

While steering clear of informal language, exercise caution to avoid words that may suggest unintended ideas. For instance, stating "The gentleman was convicted of robbing a liquor store" might leave readers questioning why the man who committed the robbery is referred to as a "gentleman." Similarly, stating "The lady was convicted of robbing a liquor store" could raise eyebrows, prompting readers to wonder why a woman involved in a robbery is characterized as a "lady." Clarity in language choice is crucial to prevent unintended connotations in formal writing.

5. Avoid non standard diction.

Non standard diction encompasses expressions that do not align with the rules of Standard English usage. Examples of non standard diction include words like "ain't," "theirselves," "hisself," "anyways," "alot" (the accepted version being "a lot"), and "alright" (the accepted version being "all right"). Reputable dictionaries typically designate such expressions as "Non standard."

Given that nonstandard expressions are generally not recognized as legitimate words, I identify these instances in essays as examples of "inaccurate word choice." It is crucial to adhere to standard language conventions in formal writing to ensure clarity and precision.

6. Avoid abbreviated versions of words.

For example, instead of writing "photo," "phone" and "TV," write "photograph," "telephone,"

and "television."

7. Avoid the overuse of short and simple sentences.

While a writer may employ formal diction in sentences, an overabundance of short and simple sentences can impart an informal tone to an essay. This might convey the impression that the writer underestimates the audience's capacity to comprehend more complex and extended sentences. While short and simple sentences can be employed judiciously in formal writing for emphasis or clarity, relying too heavily on them can reflect poorly on the writer and detract from the formality of the writing. Achieving a balance between sentence lengths contributes to a more polished and formal presentation.

It's crucial not to conflate formal diction with presumptuous diction, which involves language intended mainly to impress readers, or with jargon, which is language specific to individuals within a specialized field, such as computer technicians.

Maintain an awareness that sounding "artificial" is not the goal when using formal diction. Instead, recognize that different situations call for varying uses of language, and educated individuals possess the ability to adapt their language to diverse writing and speaking contexts. Educated people exhibit several distinct writing and speaking voices, and none of these voices is more "genuine" than another; they are choices tailored to specific situations. When employing formal diction in your essays, aim to present yourself as an intelligent individual who is attuned to your audience—an audience of well-educated individuals whom you may not personally know. Envision the language you would use in a job interview for a significant position. With formal diction, you can articulate your thoughts clearly, accurately, and effectively, without relying on the language typical of less formal situations.

The fourth essential tool in effective writing is understanding the Expectation. Every piece of writing comes with distinct expectations or objectives, shaping the final form of the document. For instance, a short story crafted for online sharing among friends will naturally differ from a formal research paper mandated in a college class. Much like the audience, the tone and formality of your writing are likely to evolve based on these diverse expectations. Recognizing and aligning with these expectations is paramount in producing a document that effectively meets its intended purpose.

Tone and Formality in Academic Writing

Understanding one's audience is a fundamental aspect of successful writing, whether composing an email to a friend, a memo to a business colleague, or a formal paper for a class. Writers must contemplate the audience's expectations, discern the assumptions that can and cannot be made about them, and reflect on the attitude or personality that permeates their writing. Tone, referring to the manner of expression in speech or writing, essentially encapsulates the attitude perceived by readers as they peruse the text. Often, writers inadvertently adopt an inappropriate tone, leading to misunderstandings and frustration.

While tone also exists in speech, the presence of body language and vocal inflections provides cues about attitude, reducing the likelihood of misunderstandings. In writing, lacking these cues, conveying attitude to readers solely through words on the page becomes a nuanced challenge that requires practice.

Consider the scenario of being hungry and seeking a lunch companion. How would you ask a friend to join you? Now, imagine posing the same question to your grandmother, boss, client, professor, or even the president. Each scenario likely prompts different phrasing. Why is that? When sitting down to write, it's vital to assess whether your audience falls into specific categories and then choose language that appears fitting for that particular audience. This thoughtful consideration ensures that your writing resonates appropriately with your readers.

Academic writing demands a formal and professional tone. To enhance the formality and academic quality of your writing, consider implementing the following suggestions:

Avoid using second-person pronouns: Refrain from using pronouns like "you" and "your." These pronouns create a tone that appears directed towards a single individual rather than the broader, general audience typically targeted in academic writing.

Eliminate contractions and slang: Steer clear of contractions such as "isn't," "don't," and "you're," as they are deemed too informal and conversational for the standards of academic writing. Opting for the complete form of words enhances the formality of your expression.

Slang has its place in casual conversations and emails, but it has no room in research papers or other formal writing contexts. When in doubt about whether a term is slang, err on the side of caution and opt for an alternative word or phrase.

Avoid run-on sentences: While run-on sentences might be commonplace in spoken language and informal interactions, they become distracting and challenging to follow in written form. Strive for clarity and coherence by steering clear of lengthy, meandering sentences.

Discard IM spellings and capitalization quirks: Phrases like "r u comin? i c u there!" might make sense in cyberspace, but in formal academic writing, adhere to standard spelling, punctuation, and capitalization conventions. This rule applies not only to academic papers but also to email correspondence with professors and potential employers. Maintaining linguistic precision enhances the professionalism and clarity of your written communication.

Organization Through Shape

After honing our writing with the tools of Topic, Thesis, Expectations, and Audience, the next step is to delve into the second aspect of organization—Shape.

Organizing or shaping your ideas, sentences, and paragraphs into a cohesive body is essential in creating an essay. The primary tool for organizing through shape is an Outline. It's worth noting that some students may harbor negative sentiments toward outlines due to past experiences where teachers prioritized the formality and format over the substance of the essay. In this class, we approach outlines more informally, viewing them as plans for arranging ideas rather than rigid structures. Think of it as a flexible guide indicating the sequence of your thoughts. While this guide employs Roman Numerals, you are free to use standard numbers, letters, or any format that suits your preference. The focus should be on the ideas and their order, not the formality of the outline. Additionally, it's acceptable to modify points as you write, provided there's a valid reason for the changes, as this is part of the revision process.

Creating an outline for a formal academic essay involves some basic elements:

Introduction:

Declare the topic: Clearly communicate the subject matter of the essay—what it is about.

Thesis Statement: Typically placed in the introduction, the thesis is a sentence or two that encapsulates your topic and your claim about it. While there are exceptions to the thesis being in the intro, we will discuss those later in the class.

Attention Grabber: The introduction should include something intriguing to capture the reader's interest and encourage further reading. Strategies for drawing in readers will be explored in later units, but for now, consider techniques such as telling a story related to the topic and thesis or presenting a startling statement. Additional information on this topic can be found in our online text.

Introductions Strategies

While there's no definitive "right" way to craft your introduction, certain common strategies can prove effective. The following approaches are worth considering, particularly when you find yourself struggling to initiate your writing:

Anecdote: Commence with a brief, relevant story that engages the reader's interest.

Pithy Quotation: Introduce your topic with a concise and impactful quote that resonates with the theme of your essay.

Image: Paint a vivid picture by describing a compelling image related to your subject matter.

Question: Pose a thought-provoking question that encourages readers to contemplate your topic.

Startling Fact: Begin with a surprising or intriguing fact that captivates the reader's attention.

Whichever strategy you choose, ensure that your opening serves to provide useful context for your reader, setting the stage for a clear understanding of your topic.

Anecdote:

Example: In the bustling streets of Tokyo, amidst the neon lights and hurried footsteps, I found myself in a small ramen shop that held more than just savory broth and noodles—it housed a story of resilience and tradition.

Pithy Quotation:

Example: Albert Einstein once remarked, "Imagination is more important than knowledge." As we delve into the realms of creativity and innovation, this wisdom takes on a profound significance.

Image:

Example: Picture a sun-kissed meadow, vibrant wildflowers swaying in the gentle breeze, as we embark on a journey to explore the beauty of sustainable living.

Question:

Example: Have you ever wondered what drives individuals to explore the outer limits of human potential, pushing the boundaries of both mind and body?

Startling Fact:

Example: Did you know that a single plastic bottle takes up to 450 years to decompose? As we confront the environmental consequences of our convenience-driven habits, the urgency for change becomes palpable.

These examples illustrate how each strategy can be applied to capture the reader's attention and set the stage for the forthcoming discussion.

In crafting your introduction, your primary objective is to orient your reader. Consider employing the journalistic approach of addressing the five Ws— who, what, when, where, why— and throw in the 'how' for good measure. By answering these fundamental questions about your topic in the introduction, you ensure that your reader is actively engaged.

While the previously mentioned strategies, such as anecdotes, quotations, images, questions, or startling facts, can initiate your introduction effectively, there should be more substance to it. Once you've captured your readers' attention, it's essential to provide context for your topic and seamlessly transition towards introducing your thesis. Be mindful to incorporate your thesis statement, typically positioned at or near the end of your introduction, serving as the guiding beacon for what follows in your essay.

The introduction serves as the essay's opening, providing a brief overview of the topic and presenting the thesis statement. The thesis is the central claim that the essay aims to prove or discuss. While the signposting might not be immediately evident, it becomes clearer through the example that follows.

Signposting:

Signposting, akin to trail markers in a dense forest, guides readers through the essay's terrain. It's a roadmap, offering glimpses of what lies ahead. For instance, consider an essay arguing the benefits of renewable energy. The signposting might announce, "In the forthcoming sections, we will explore the environmental, economic, and societal advantages of embracing renewable energy sources."

Body:

The body constitutes the core of the essay, the canvas upon which evidence is painted to support the thesis. Here, facts, research, ideas, examples, and experiences converge to build a compelling case. Each paragraph serves as a building block, reinforcing the central argument. It's a tapestry woven with information, seamlessly supporting the thesis.

Conclusion:

As the journey through the essay concludes, the conclusion steps onto the stage. Its primary role is to convey closure without explicitly stating "The End." This is achieved through thoughtful wording and phrasing, signaling to the reader that the discourse has reached its natural terminus. While conclusion-writing lacks a one-size-fits-all formula, it mirrors the essay's unique construction. Much like a well-crafted melody's final note, the conclusion harmonizes with the preceding composition.

In essence, the conclusion should encapsulate the key points without introducing new ideas. It's a synthesis of the essay's components, wrapping them up in a cohesive manner. Consider it a parting handshake, leaving a lasting impression on the reader's mind.

In summary, the introduction sets the stage, signposting guides the way, the body provides substance, and the conclusion achieves closure, subtly bidding farewell to the reader.

Conclusions

A compelling conclusion serves as the grand finale of your paper, leaving your reader not only with a comprehensive grasp of your key points but, perhaps, a fresh perspective on the subject at hand.

Consider your audience and tailor your conclusion accordingly. If your reader is relatively new to the topic, a strategic restatement of your main points can reinforce your thesis. However, steer clear of duplicating sentences from your introduction; instead, craft an artful rephrasing that echoes the core of your argument. Transition seamlessly into asserting the reasonableness of the judgment you've reached.

Yet, a mere recapitulation of your thesis is insufficient. Presumably, you've navigated your reader through a robust, lucid argument, substantiated with compelling evidence. Your goal is to conclude by underlining the significance or merit of your topic and argument. Articulate how the world might be altered or lives transformed if your perspective, plan, or idea were embraced.

Extend beyond the immediate confines of your argument. Highlight the limitations in the current understanding of your topic, paving the way for future avenues of exploration. Consider suggesting or recommending further actions, studies, or research that could enhance the discourse.

In essence, your conclusion serves as the culmination of a well-orchestrated symphony of ideas. It doesn't merely retrace steps; it elevates the discourse, leaving an indelible impression on your reader and inviting contemplation beyond the final page.

Caution is key in the conclusion – resist the temptation to introduce novel concepts. Your mission is to elegantly tie up the narrative, ensuring that the reader departs with a crystal-clear comprehension of your discourse.

In crafting your conclusion, envision a satisfying resolution, much like the final chapter of a well-crafted novel. The aim is to leave the reader with a profound understanding of your narrative, reinforcing the salient points without venturing into uncharted intellectual territory.

For those who have embarked on a persuasive journey, the aspiration is that your words carry conviction. Ideally, your persuasive paper leaves an indelible mark, compelling readers to resonate with and, potentially, be swayed by the compelling arguments you've presented. As you pen your conclusion, consider it the last note of a persuasive symphony, resonating with the harmonies of your main points, compelling the reader to nod in agreement.

Putting Organization Into Practice

Now equipped with tools for both focus and shape in essay organization, let's delve into practical application by constructing an essay around the idea that older dogs make better pets than puppies.

In Unit 2, we reacted to a magazine article about hurricanes, generating various ideas. In Unit 3, utilizing the focus tools, we honed in on the topic and thesis: "Older dogs make better pets than puppies."

The next step involves building an outline around this thesis. Through freewriting and brainstorming, we generate supporting points— in this case, older dogs are more obedient, more loyal, and less destructive.

Following the principles outlined in the Notes on Shape, here's a sample outline:

I. Introduction

Topic: Older dogs

Thesis: Older dogs make better pets for families than puppies.

Attention Grabber: A poignant tale of older dogs being less frequently adopted, contrasting with the popularity of younger dogs.

Signposting: A clear statement previewing the main points: They make better pets due to being more obedient, more loyal, and less destructive.

Sample Introduction:

"In my years volunteering at the local animal shelter, a noticeable pattern has emerged. The young and energetic puppies find new homes within a week, leaving behind the older dogs to wait indefinitely. While families gravitate toward the exuberance of youth, I've come to appreciate the virtues of these overlooked companions. It's disheartening to witness their extended stays in the shelter, passed over for the zest of puppies. Yet, behind those greying muzzles lies a reservoir of qualities that make older dogs exceptional family pets. Their superior obedience, unwavering loyalty, and gentler nature render them not just deserving but ideal companions for families."

II. Body

More Obedient: Elaborate with details, examples, and data showcasing the superior obedience of older dogs.

More Loyal: Provide comprehensive details illustrating the loyalty exhibited by older dogs.

Less Destructive: Present supporting details demonstrating the reduced destructive tendencies of older dogs.

Sample Transition:

"Having established the admirable trait of obedience in older dogs, let's turn our attention to another facet that sets them apart—their unparalleled loyalty."

III. Conclusion

Summarize the key points from the body.

Reinforce the thesis and the significance of the argument.

Offer a closing thought that resonates with the reader.

In conclusion, the writer should strive to leave the reader with a sense of closure, emphasizing the enduring value of older dogs as family companions. Importantly, each new paragraph in the body should seamlessly transition, maintaining the flow of the essay. Refer to the additional resources for guidance on crafting these transitions effectively.

Paragraphing & Transitioning

When to Paragraph

Determining the right moment to transition from one paragraph to the next can be a nuanced art in writing. A broad guideline is to consider having more than one or two paragraphs per page of type, recognizing that online platforms often demand even shorter paragraphs, with multiple concise paragraphs fitting on a single screen.

However, pinpointing the exact threshold is subjective, and it's often during the revision phase that the finer aspects of paragraphing are honed. While drafting, try to be mindful of shifts in focus or changes in the information being presented. As you navigate your text, look for those natural breaks where a new paragraph could enhance clarity or emphasize a distinct idea.

During the revision process, focus on refining your paragraph structure. Ensure each paragraph encapsulates a single main idea or theme, allowing your reader to digest information in manageable chunks. By strategically placing paragraph breaks, you guide your reader through the logical flow of your thoughts.

In essence, the decision on when "enough is enough" for a paragraph is an evolving consideration. As you revise, pay attention to the ebb and flow of your narrative, introducing paragraph breaks where they enhance the coherence and impact of your writing.

Linking Paragraphs: Transitions

Transitions serve as the invisible threads weaving together the fabric of your ideas. These linguistic tools, in the form of words or phrases, guide your readers seamlessly from one thought to the next, revealing the logical connections that underpin your narrative. Essential for maintaining coherence, transition words and phrases act as navigational aids, ensuring that your paragraphs and groups of paragraphs are intricately linked.

As you craft your writing, consider transitions as the bridges that span the gaps between ideas, facilitating a smooth and comprehensible journey for your readers. This crucial aspect of writing often takes center stage during the revising phase, where writers fine-tune and enhance the connectivity of their compositions.

Here's a collection of transition words to serve as beacons in your writing, both within paragraphs and between them:

Within Paragraphs:

Additionally

Furthermore

Moreover

In addition

Likewise

Similarly

Consequently

Subsequently

Therefore

Thus

Between Paragraphs:

Meanwhile

On the other hand

Nevertheless

Nonetheless

Conversely

In contrast

As a result

Consequently

Ultimately

Accordingly

Harness the power of these transition words judiciously, allowing them to illuminate the pathways between your ideas. Like signposts on a literary journey, transitions enrich your writing, transforming it into a cohesive and engaging narrative.

To summarize, crafting a well-organized essay involves a thoughtful and systematic process. Here's a step-by-step guide to help you bring your thoughts into a cohesive essay:

Identify Your Topic and Thesis:

Clearly define the topic you'll be addressing in your essay.

Formulate a concise and compelling thesis statement that encapsulates your main argument or claim.

Consider your audience and the expectations they may have regarding the topic.

Brainstorm Supporting Points and Evidence:

Dedicate time to brainstorming ideas and evidence that substantiate the claim made in your thesis.

Explore various angles and perspectives related to your topic.

Gather sufficient material to build a robust case for your thesis.

Develop an Outline:

Create a flexible and informal outline that serves as a roadmap for your essay.

Arrange your points in a logical order to enhance the flow of your argument.

Use the outline to visualize the structure and organization of your ideas.

Write the Essay Using the Outline:

Utilize the outline as a guide to systematically translate your ideas into a well-structured essay.

Begin by addressing each point in the outline, weaving in the supporting details and evidence.

Maintain coherence and clarity by following the logical order established in your outline.

Review and Revise:

After completing the initial draft, take time to review your essay.

Evaluate the overall flow, coherence, and effectiveness of your argument.

Revise as needed, ensuring that each point contributes to the overall thesis and that the essay meets the expectations of your audience.

While this process is outlined in a straightforward manner, it is adaptable for essays of varying lengths and complexities. The key is to invest time in each step, from the initial brainstorming to the final review, to ensure a well-organized and compelling essay.

Placing the Thesis: Deductive and Inductive

Deductive vs. Inductive For Thesis Placement

When crafting an essay, one crucial decision revolves around the placement of the thesis statement, which results from our Topic + A Claim About the Topic = Thesis formula. The traditional approach, often seen in academic writing, is to position the thesis in the introduction. This organizational pattern is known as the Deductive pattern, progressing from general to specific. In this format, the introduction unveils the thesis, followed by the body of the essay, which furnishes detailed evidence to support that thesis.

The Deductive pattern is widely used in academic settings, offering a clear roadmap for readers and establishing a foundation for the subsequent arguments. It's a structured approach that efficiently communicates the central claim upfront.

However, an alternative approach exists—the Inductive pattern. Here, the thesis is not disclosed in the introduction. Instead, the essay begins with a more general discussion of the topic. The evidence and details supporting the thesis are presented in the body, and the thesis itself is unveiled towards the conclusion. This method can be advantageous, particularly when dealing with a potentially hostile or strongly opinionated audience. By delaying the presentation of the thesis, the writer can foster a more open-minded reception to the evidence.

In professional writing, especially when delivering challenging or negative news, the Inductive pattern is frequently employed. It allows for a nuanced approach that guides the reader through the evidence before presenting the central claim.

While our Organization Essay in Unit 3 follows the Deductive pattern with the thesis in the introduction, the Unit 4 essay grants you the flexibility to choose between a Deductive or Inductive approach. This decision should be influenced by your understanding of your audience and the nature of your thesis, balancing the need for clarity with the potential benefits of delaying the reveal for a more receptive reception.

In the realm of writing, choices regarding the presentation of information often hinge on the application of inductive and deductive reasoning. The distinction is straightforward:

Inductive reasoning: Unveils facts and culminates in a conclusion.

Deductive reasoning: Introduces a thesis statement and subsequently furnishes supporting facts or examples.

Which approach a writer should adopt depends on factors such as content, the target audience, and the overarching purpose of the communication.

For those seeking to lead their audience on a journey of discovery, inductive writing proves effective. Consider the following example involving Max, the dog:

"My dog Max wants to chase every non-human living creature he sees, whether it is the cats in the house or rabbits and squirrels in the backyard. Sources indicate that this is a behavior typical of Jack Russell terriers. While Max is a mixed breed dog, he is approximately the same size and has many of the typical markings of a Jack Russell. From these facts along with his behaviors, we surmise that Max is indeed at least part Jack Russell terrier."

In this passage, the reader assimilates information about Max's behavior and appearance before reaching the concluding sentence, effectively connecting the narrative pieces. This style of writing captivates the reader's attention, compelling them to piece together the elements of the narrative.

Conversely, deductive reasoning proves advantageous when the audience is more inclined to scan rather than delve into the entirety of the written piece. In the following example about a backyard in need of attention, the deductive approach allows the reader to discern the main point swiftly:

"My backyard is in dire need of cleaning and new landscaping. The Kentucky bluegrass that was planted there five years ago has been all but replaced by Creeping Charlie, a particularly invasive weed. The stone steps leading to the house are in some disrepair, and there are some slats missing from the fence. Perennials were planted three years ago, but the moles and rabbits destroyed many of the bulbs, so we no longer have flowers in the spring."

Here, the reader grasps the state of the backyard immediately from the outset.

Ultimately, the choice between inductive and deductive reasoning is contingent on the writer's objectives and the nature of the audience. While inductive reasoning engages readers through discovery, deductive reasoning, akin to scientific discourse, provides a clear structure with a premise, evidence, and a conclusion.

The utility of deductive writing extends to various professional contexts, notably in business letters and project documents. In these instances, where clients often engage in skimming for generalities or specific information pertinent to their needs, a deductive approach proves effective. Scientific writing and research papers also find a natural fit within this format, benefiting from its structured and easily navigable nature.

Regardless of the chosen method—inductive or deductive—several key considerations should be paramount. First and foremost, the veracity of facts and evidence is paramount. Conduct meticulous research from reputable sources, ensuring accurate and reliable information. Proper citation of ideas is essential to maintain academic integrity and credibility.

Exercise caution with the use of absolute words such as "always," "never," and "only," as they may inadvertently dismiss potential anomalies or exceptions. Precision and nuance in language contribute to a more balanced and well-rounded argument.

Furthermore, in the realm of deductive writing, it is advisable to refrain from posing questions within the text. The primary responsibility of the writer is to provide answers and a coherent argument rather than leaving questions unanswered.

Lastly, exercise restraint with the inclusion of quotes in thesis statements or conclusions. While quotes can enhance an argument, relying too heavily on them may compromise the writer's authority and diminish the impact of original thought. Strive to articulate your ideas in your own words, reinforcing your position as the authoritative voice behind the paper.

In essence, whether opting for inductive or deductive reasoning, a commitment to accuracy, precision, and originality ensures the effectiveness and credibility of your writing across diverse professional and academic contexts.

Unit 3 Discussion

After viewing the content material for Unit 3, what aspects of the organization in writing do you find most challenging? Do you have any suggestions to share with the class to help organize your thoughts into an essay?

Your post should be at least one paragraph of 5-7 sentences. You are not required to respond to posts by your classmates in this course. You are certainly not discouraged from responding to posts by your classmates, but you are not required to respond to posts by your classmates in order to receive full credit for your discussion assignments. Civility, courtesy, and a constructive tone are expected at all times in the Discussion Boards. I will not be grading you on your grammar or punctuation, but if your post is too confusing to understand it could reduce your participation points.

I find it to be a challenge formulating ideas properly often. What I usually do to counteract this is often I break the information down in smaller parts to figure out the way I’m going to write it. So usually, I start by picking the subject I’m writing about then if it’s a story I grab the characters the place and keep them on separate note sections. This way even when it’s a long story I’m writing I can keep the idea’s that I came up with and use them in a method that allows me to go back and remember what each character was doing.  To give an example of this I was back when I worked on game servers there was a point when I was working on a place called caverns of time and the idea was to take people back in time before a certain monster destroyed the city and allow them to do a quest line which would get them items to help in the future to beat the monster. So, I would write down the different characters and backstories of them and items and overall ideas. And I’ll show a small example of it.

//character names from the story

Siguror Thanatos I  "The mage knight Thanatos"

Gallion       "old man at the training hall in Morroc

Despero       "scary guy at the training hall in Morroc"

Zenkio        "Rakruki's father a town guard"

Rakruki       "Girl of one of the morocc village guards"

Leon          "Childhood friend of Siguror"

//- prontera only story

Elenora Volsunga       "Mother of Brynhild and former queen of Prontera"

Richard Volsunga       "Father of and former king of Prontera"

And then Idea's wise I would just put down ideas for different parts like so: 

related to the old maps like the alpha for prontera the non destroyed morroc and stuff

a epic world event idea 

for legendary weapons and gear 

based on the story background of Morocc

he gave one piece of his legendary weapons and gear

 which he used to defeat satan and seal him

he told the townspeople to lock them away cause the power was too great for any person to wield 

 haven't decided that yet

As you can see really rough ideas then later as I start to write the story I go back to help myself keep on track of what the story was about and this way I don't forget any important parts of the story I'm writing. Even if it's not related to fiction and such can be used in any application this was just an example of making use of characters from a story I made for a game. But I use the same kind of method as I write papers to so I remember what I was writing about and the overall topic so I can help organize it properly. 

Organization Essay Assignment

The purpose of the Organization Essay is to apply the tools learned in Unit 3 on Organization to write an organized essay that has both focus and shape.

Here are the details:

Do some brainstorming, freewriting, reaction, etc. to come up with an essay topic. 

When you get a specific topic, create a thesis using the Topic + Claim About Topic = Thesis formula in this unit. Also, consider the tools of the audience and expectations for this essay. The audience is going to be your instructor, but you might be thinking of other readers as well. The expectation is this is a formal college essay.

Now that you have your thesis, spend some time thinking of at least 3 points to support the thesis. You should have at least 3 points for an essay this size but no more than 5.

Develop an outline where you have your introduction, the body made up of 3 to 5 points, and a conclusion.

Now that you have an outline, you will write your essay. This is just a matter of writing in the details for each of the points that you listed in your outline.

After writing your essay, spend some time revising and editing. Are there points you want to add or go more in-depth with to support your thesis? Did you proofread for mechanical errors?

Give the essay a title.

Essay Guidelines:

All essays must be typed, double spaced, in Times New Roman font, 12 point

This paper is to be a minimum of two pages.

You can select either APA or MLA formatting style when completing this essay assignment. Please refer to the Formatting Exercise in Unit One for how to set up your assignment in either style. Remember, with APA style you are required to include a title page with your assignment. The title page will not count toward the two required pages of content that you are expected to submit for this essay assignment.

You are expected to use proper grammar and mechanics — refer to a grammar guide as needed.

You do not need to do any research for this essay. You may write on a topic you are familiar with so that you can use your own knowledge and experience to support the thesis. The Research Paper in Unit 7 is where you will have to use research. At this point, you may use all your own knowledge in developing the content of this Organization Essay.

Although you may develop your own thesis, here are some ideas for a potential thesis that you may choose from if you need some help coming up with something. The ideas below give the claim, you would just put your own topic in the blank. These ideas could be modified to suit your needs as well. They are just ideas to help get you started.

__________is the most environmentally friendly vehicle in today's crowded society. (You could choose a vehicle you consider friendly to the environment and put it in the above blank as your topic. When reading with the claim, you would have your thesis)

__________is the most desirable location to raise a family.

__________is a career path that would provide flexibility in today's changing economy.

­­­­­­­­__________ is the most effective method for learning in college.

Organizational Essay Assignment

 

            Safety In the workplace is very important and most people fail to understand why OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health Administration) and occupational safety programs are so important to individuals in the workplace. But after joining the safety team and moving up through the ranks of safety and becoming a CDSO (collateral duty safety officer) I really got to see how important safety could be to everyone. Often times small things that we wouldn’t even think much about can cause safety problems like people getting cut or injured on things which then triggers the response of reports and all and many of the management would be frustrated at employees over injuries.

            Some of the most common things that often happen in the line of work we do as TSO’s (Transportation Security Officers) Is getting cut by sharp objects in bags as we do a check for security. Often times many injuries happen because we go reaching into a bag that could potentially have sharp objects and even though we ask if you have anything sharp inside your bag even, I know sometimes you don’t know you have a throwing knife at the bottom of the bag which may or may not have a sheath or a bunch of loose razors from a straight razor that are randomly thrown in your bag. And even if we look before sticking our hands into your bag, we still can get poked or stabbed. Many of those kinds of injuries are hard to really stop. Some of the things we’ve used to mitigate these types of injuries is putting lights on stands so you can get a better look at what’s inside of a bag before you reach in.

            While some safety risks might be not avoidable other ones can be avoided one that happens often which can be avoided is people causing their own security risks. Such as being an unsafe worker. Like cluttering work space often times we see individuals that work with the bins on the checkpoint and rather then stacking extra bins on a bin cart or above them like on top of a machine they stack them on the floor which leaves a tripping hazard for other people and themselves. It’s sad to see these types of cases come up because it often leads to disciplinary action for the employee for injuring themselves and others. And it can be completely avoided by simply remembering to always keep spaces from being cluttered and keep object off the floor and at least waist level.

            Another type of safety illness that really took everyone by surprise is covid-19 prior to covid reports for illness would be related to occupational skin disease or needle sticks and only very serious illness to an employee. Now covid created a whole new level requiring much more detailed safety requirements. Like the need to collect statement information for when the person got infected where they worked so contact tracing could be done. Did they get hospitalized? What medications did they take? How many days where they off so LWD (Lost Work Days) could be completed? Are they still on RWD (Restricted Work Days)? And during the times when covid was really surging instead of only having 1 or 2 safety reports needing to be worked on we had 15 to 20 or more which really took a ton of time to complete. And in an airport environment there’s already a high risk for illness because people don’t stop traveling just because they are sick. So, cases like that would run through everyone pretty quickly. Fortunately, we didn’t lose anyone during any of the past 2 years of covid but we had a lot of OWCP (Office of Workers Compensation Programs) claims that needed to be process between the Department of Labor and our HR specialist team. And it did cause a loss of workforce during the times we had covid running really bad.

            Despite all the possible injuries and illnesses that can happen if a company really puts efforts into maintaining a safe workplace and keeps safety as a number one priority, they can achieve really good results overall. But if safety always takes a back seat and people are forced to rush and cut corners just to get things done quicker, we see the effects can lead to serious injuries or death. So always keep in mind if you see a safety hazard say something and always work in a way that keeps yourself safe and the people around you from getting injured.